CHAPTER THREE

Work station design

General Principles of Reaches and Clearances

for Job & Workplace Designs, Work station
design problems, consideration of common
work place postures and motions in design,
ergonomic tools and techniques and General
Guidelines for the Design of Aisles and
Corridors.
 Common Workplace Postures

 There are common postures found in working

environment that can be considered when designing
workplace products or space. This section reviews
guidelines for these postures:
 Standing
 Sitting
 Reaching
 Moving
 1- Standing

 Some users may need or want to stand while at their

workstations.
 If this is the case, an appropriate desk can be
designed and selected for the type of work being
performed.
 Desk height for a standing operator can range from
28-43"(Grandjean, 1997) depending on whether the
desk is for precision, light, or heavy work.
Different work-surface heights can be used depending on
the type of work performed.
 2-Sitting

• Knowing what parameters to design for while the

user is seated can help increase the comfort of the
user. Common seated anthropometric measurements
can be seen in Figure below.
Common anthropometric measurements for the seated position

A- Sitting Height

B- Sitting Eye Height

C- Waist Depth

D- Thigh Clearance

E- Buttock-to-Knee

F- Knee Height

G- Seat Length/Depth

H- Popliteal Height
 3- Reaching

• While sitting or standing, an individual at work will

usually have to reach for something.
• The workstation, and parts that go with workstations
(such as overhead storage and pedestals), should allow
the majority of movement of the user’s body joints
within healthy zones.
• When designing products, consider how much
individuals will have to reach in order to minimize
awkward or unhealthy positions.
 4- Moving

• Users will move around in their environment to file

papers, answer a phone, or stretch. An occasional
break from sitting is encouraged because it helps to
stimulate muscles, and increases blood flow, which
decreases fatigue.
 Workplace Designs

 The work place should be designed in such a way that employees

will be able to perform their jobs effectively.
 To achieve this crucial goal, the workplace designer should keep
two design factors in mind.
1- The first factor is that there is a large variability in size of
people in the work-force population.
2- The second factor is to understand the user population; that is,
culture, education, training, skills, attitude, physical and mental

capability, etc.
• Therefore, designers should be cautious that the worst
design mistake they can make is, probably, to design to
their own personal specifications (the syndrome of “if I
can use it, it must be designed well”).
• Such a mistake can be avoided by using the relevant
anthropometric data in design of the workplace for the
work-force population.
 The design of workstations should be based upon anthropometric
data, behavioral patterns of employees, and specific requirements
of the work being done.
 For example, the height at which work takes place is important in
designing workstations. Work should be located to suit the height
of the operator, whether sitting or standing.
 If the work is located too high, the neck and shoulders may suffer
due to the shoulders frequently being raised to compensate for the
incorrect height.
 If the work is located too low, a backache can result from
required leaning and bowing the back.
 Adjustable work tables allow operators to determine a
comfortable working height. Anthropometric dimensions can also
be used in workplace layout to optimize vertical and horizontal
reaches and grasps.
 General principles for workstation design

The general principle for designing individual workstation is to

provide an efficient and safe location in which the work can be
performed. To establish this general principle, the design engineer
must answer the following six key questions:
1- What must the work see while on the job? This includes: parts of
the workplace that must be visible to the worker; number, types,
and locations of controls that must be utilized by the worker and
the types of actions required to operate them; interaction with
other workers; and necessity to view the job activities performed
by other workers.
2- What must the worker hear? This includes the oral
communication during job performance, auditory signals that
must heard by the worker.
3- What tasks must the worker perform? the designer must
determine the required movements and job tasks performed by
the worker. It must be determined whether the job requires
lifting, carrying, and positioning of materials. The types of tools
needed to perform the job must also be considered.
4- What is the consequence of objectives? The designer must
understand the nature and sequence of the job activities that must
be performed by the worker.
5- What clearances are required? The designer must determine and
make provisions for clearances that are required in order for the
worker to perform the job efficiently and safely. The designer
must consider the size of the workers who will perform jobs at the
workstation and clearances for their clothing and movements.

6- What storage is required? The designer must make provisions for

the storage of raw materials, in-process work-pieces, and finished
product, as well as the work-tools and other job aids that must be
used and stored at the workstation.
In general, the work place design must satisfy the following
important criteria:
 Be economical;
 Enhance the workers’ efficiency;
 Allow good working postures;
 Minimize fatigue;
 Minimize health-and safety-risks, such as stresses on the
musculoskeletal system.
The application of ergonomic principles in the workplace can
result in the following:
 increased productivity;
 improved health and safety of workers;
 lower workers’ compensation claims;
 compliance with government regulations (e.g. OSHA standards)
 job satisfaction;
 increased work quality;
 lower worker turnover;
 lower lost time at work;
 improved morale of workers;
 decrease in absenteeism rate.
 Inadequate design of workplace will inhibit the ability of worker
to perform his tasks and may result in injuries, strain or fatigue.

 Anthropometry is the measure of human body and the data is used

to design workplace, chairs, tools, equipment and others.

 The goal of workplace design is to provide efficient, safe, and

comfort for the worker.
Workplace design considers age, sex, body size, strength, disabilities and others.
• Work should be located to suit
the height of the operator,
whether sitting or standing.
1. If the work is located too high,
the neck and shoulders may
suffer due to the shoulders
frequently being raised.
2. If the work is located too low, a
back pain can result from
required leaning & bowing back.
Three workplace layout are:
• The first one is actual
working area1 which is most
convenient area for working. 3

• The second workplace layout

is normal working area2 that 2 2
is within the easy reach of 1
the operator.

• The third suggested area is

maximum working area3 KEY
which is accessible with full 1= Actual working area
arm stretch. 2 = Normal working area
3 = Maximum working area
 Digital workplace with
a digital human model

Digital workplace with adjustable material shuttles

Ergonomically planned manual assembly system
 Ergonomics Seating

• The two main objectives of ergonomic

seating in the workplace are to increase
individual efficiency and reduce fatigue.
• When sitting, the main part of body
weight is transferred to the seat pan.
• Some weight is also transferred to the
floor, back rest, and armrests.
• Where weight transferred is the key to a
good seat design.
• The lumbar needs to be supported
to decrease disc pressure.
• Providing a seat back that inclines
backwards and has a lumbar
support is critical to prevent
excessive low back pressures.
• Another key to reducing lumbar
disc pressure is the use of
armrests.
Some ergonomics principles that should be applied to the workplace,
whether it be an industrial or an office environment, include the
following:
 Aim at dynamic work, avoid static work (work where there is no
movement). Static work or static loading of the muscles is
inefficient and accelerates fatigue. Static work can occur when the
workplace is too high or too low, when holding a weight in one’s
arms for an extended period, or constant bending of the back to
perform some task.
 Work surface heights should depend on the size(anthropometry)
of the worker and the type of task performed (precision, light
assembly, or heavy manual).
 In general, work within 30 per cent of one’s maximum voluntary
contraction (strength). Avoid overloading of the muscular system.
 Primary controls, devices, and work pieces should be placed
within the normal working area. Secondary controls should be
placed within the maximum working area so as to reduce
extended reaches and fatigue.
 Strive for best mechanical advantage of the skeletal system.
 Work with both hands. Do not use one hand (non-preferred hand)
as a biological holding device.
 Hands should move in symmetrical and opposite directions.
 Use the feet as well as the hands.
 Design knowing the capacity of the fingers. Do not overload the
fingers.
 Avoid unnatural posture. Bend the handle of the tool not the wrist.
 Permit change of posture.
 Maintain a proper sitting posture.
 Ergonomics tools and techniques

 Work-tools are extensions of human hands. They enhance the

capability of the users in performing their tasks so efficiently that
the tasks would otherwise be difficult, if not impossible.

 However, the ill-effects of an improperly designed work-tool can

be devastating, yet so subtle as to remain blameless.

 Poorly designed tools are one of the common factors contributing

to the development of cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). They
can also impair the productivity of workers.
• Improper use of a work-tool, regardless of its design, can
also lead to CTD problems. Tools can also cause bodily
injuries in single-exposure incidents. Ergonomically
well-designed and properly used tools can reduce or
prevent such problems.

• The principles of ergonomics and biomechanics should

be considered in the selection, evaluation, and use of
work-tools.
 Grip Strength and Endurance
 Grip strength and endurance are two terms related to the design
and use of hand tools which have been defined by Bazar (1978).
 Grip strength is the maximum momentary squeeze force exerted on
a hand dynamometer.
 Endurance is the length of time a person can exert a specified
force. Consideration of grip strength and endurance is very
important in the design and use of hand-tools requiring gripping
force, and in manual materials handling (MMH).
 Grip strength and endurance can be measured using a hand dynamometer. A
hand dynamometer is a device which measures the force an individual exerts
through the hand grip.
 The fingers in a normal closed fist form an elliptical shape (Fig A). The grip
strength in this situation is found to be greater than when the person tries to
hold the tool handle perpendicular to the hand-arm axis without changing the
wrist posture, as illustrated in (Fig B).

A- Normal closed fist B- An abnormal closed fist

The following factors are known to affect both grip strength and
endurance, and should be considered in hand-tool design.
1- Size of grip span and diameter: The tool handle should fit the hand
of the user. A handle of a too large or too small grip diameter
cannot be held comfortably and reduces the grip strength.
2- Type of grasp/grip: Power grip strength is about four times greater
than the maximum pinch strength. Pinch grip requires significantly
higher muscle force than power grip.
3- Age: Maximal muscle strength is reached at the age of about 20 for
men, and a few years earlier for women (Rodahl, 1989).Grip
strength may reach its maximum value in the middle to late 20s
and then declines as age advances.
4- Gender: The grip strength of men is greater than that of women
(Falke1 et al., 1985). On average the grip strength for women
(24.5-35.0 kg for US females) is about 60% of men's (41.9-59.8 kg
for US males; Fraser, 1983).

5-Handedness: The grip strength and endurance of the dominant

hand are higher than those of the non-dominant hand. The average
percentage difference between dominant and non-dominant hands
for men is in the range of 3.2-11.5%.
6- Vibration: Grip strength requirements for grasping and controlling
vibrating tools are higher than those required by non-vibrating
tools.
7- Wrist posture: Grip strength is reduced with the deviation of the
wrist from its neutral posture.
8- Gloves: Gloves increase grip strength requirements. They also
increase the size of the hand. For example, woolen or leather
gloves add 5 mm to hand thickness and 8 mm to hand breadth at
the thumb (Fraser, 1983).
 Types of work tools
Work-tools may be divided into two categories:
1- Hand tools: Hand tools are non-powered and include axes,
hammers, wrenches, screwdrivers, hand saws, pliers, etc.
2- Power tools: There are several different types of power tools,
based on the power source they use. They include electric,
pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic, and power-actuated tools.
 A slightly bent handle better fits the natural contour of the hand and minimizes
the need for a tight grip to maintain the tool. Based on this principle in the early
1970s,John Bennett introduced a handle for push brooms with a 19 o bend at its
stem (Emanuel et al., 1980). He selected this angle as the basis for his new
design to keep the user's wrist straight. Bennett has patented the 19 ± 5° angles
on virtually all tool handles and named them Bio-curve tools. When a Bio-
Curve tool is gripped, the third (middle) finger is locked into the center of the
curve while the other fingers naturally fall into the curve of the handle.

A 19° angle formed by the A bent handle allows the wrist

lifeline under the ball of the hand to be maintained straight.
 Ergonomics principles for hand-tool design and evaluation

The following ergonomic guidelines for tool design, evaluation, and

selection have been prepared.
 Avoid rigid, form-fitting handles with grooves for each finger.
Such handles do not improve the grip strength and function unless
they are sized to a particular user’s hand. These types of handles,
as one-size fits- all, are usually designed to fit the average hand
size (i.e the 50% percentile).
 Avoid hand tools which require awkward movements, or cannot
be , operated effectively with neutral wrist posture and low force
(Fig. a). Tool handles should be designed so that the user can
maintain the hands in line with the forearms as much as possible
(Fig. b).

a) Awkward b) Good
 Avoid tool handles with sharp corners, edges, or pinch points. Tool handles
should be either round or oval. All pinch points should be eliminated or
effectively guarded.
 The tool-handle surface should be compressible, non-conductive, and smooth.
However, handles should have enough coefficient of friction to minimize
hand-gripping forces required for tool control.
comparison of (a) an inappropriate tool handle that requires an awkward wrist
posture and creates high forces in the unprotected palm of the hand and (b) an
improved tool handle that allows the wrist to be in a more neutral posture and
distributes forces over a larger, more muscular area of the hand .

a) short-handled screwdriver b) long-handled screwdriver

 Avoid hand tools that impose concentrated pressure over the soft
tissues of the hand which can impair circulation and the nerve
function in the hand. Figure “a” above shows a short-handle
screwdriver digging into the palm of the hand. Long-handle
screwdrivers are more comfortable to use (fig b).
 Choose or design tools that can be used by either hand. Left
handed workers should not be forgotten in the design of the tool.
Many power tools (e.g., chain saws, sanders and drills) are
equipped with two handles, one of which is the primary handle
(usually with a trigger and used by the dominant hand) and the
other is a secondary handle, used as the stabilizing handle.
 Choose ergonomically designed tools to maintain a more natural
position of the wrist and to insure better distribution of grip forces
during task performance. Examples are bent-handled tools, such as
bent-handled pliers.

 Provide vibration dampening for vibrating hand tools.

 Use long-handled screwdriver, because short handles dig into the

palm of the hand, which may cause nerve and blood vessel damage
and/or irritation of the tendons.
 Provide workers with tools and machine controls which can be
operated most effectively, with neutral body part postures and low
forces.

Special-purpose tools help reduce excessive force and prevent wrist deviation.

 Use power grips for power, and use precision grips for precision.
 Substitute power tools for hand tools that require high force levels.
 Common work place motions

 Ultimately, the workplace should be comfortable for users and

adapt to their needs as much as possible. Workplace products
designed with this in mind can lead to higher worker productivity
and lower risk of injury and illnesses.
 The human body has a natural range of motion (ROM). Movement
within the proper ROM promotes blood circulation and flexibility
which could lead to more comfort and higher productivity. Despite
the need to promote motion, users should try to avoid repetitive
movements and certain extremes in their ROM over long periods of
time.
 Good and Bad Zones
There are 4 different zones that a user might encounter while sitting
or standing:
1- Zone 0 (Green Zone) Preferred zone for most movements. Puts
minimal stress on muscles and joints.
2- Zone 1 (Yellow Zone) Preferred zone for most movements. Puts
minimal stress on muscles and joints.
3- Zone 2 (Red Zone) More extreme position for limbs, puts greater
strain on muscles and joints.
4- Zone 3 (Beyond Red Zone) Most extreme positions for limbs,
should be avoided if possible, especially with heavy lifting or
repetitive tasks.
 Zones 0 and 1 include smaller join movements, while
Zones 2 and 3 represent more extreme positions.
 Zone 0 and Zone 1 are preferred for most movements to
occur. Zones 2 and 3 should be avoided when possible,
especially for repetitive and heavy tasks. Motion in these
ranges puts more strain on muscles and tendons and
could lead to the development of musculoskeletal
disorders.