CHAPTER 5

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
IN PLANT NUTRITION
BY: Melese A. (MSc in Soil Science), 2023
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 The supply and absorption of chemical compounds needed for growth and metabolism
may be defined as nutrition and the chemical compounds required by an organism
termed nutrients.
 The study of how plants absorb and assimilate inorganic ions called mineral nutrition.
 Nutrients are indispensable as plant constituents, for biochemical reactions, and for the
production of organic materials (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, etc.) by
photosynthesis.
 In agriculture, optimal crop nutrition is an important prerequisite for obtaining high yields
and good-quality produce.

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 For more than 2000 years, the beneficial effect of adding mineral nutrients to soils to
improve plant growth has been known in agriculture.
 Justus von Liebig(1803-1873) summarized the scattered information on importance of
mineral elements for plant growth that contributed toward establishment of mineral
nutrition of plants as a scientific discipline.
 By 1890, scientists had already established that C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg and Fe were
required by plants.
 Between 1922 and 1954, additional elements were determined to be essential: Mn, Cu, Zn,
Mo, B and Cl.
 Ni has been added few years ago to the plant essential list of mineral elements.
Discoverer and discoverer (s) of essentiality for the essential elements

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 CONT…

 Now, it is widely accepted that higher plants must have access to C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca,
Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, Cl and Ni in order to meet their essential mineral nutrient
needs.
 From the 17 essential elements, C, H and O combined make up the carbohydrate structure
of the plant and
 They comprise about 90% to 95% of the plant dry matter.
 The remaining 14 elements are obtained from the soil through the root system and they
make up the remaining 5% to 10% of the plant DM.

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 5.1. Criteria for Essentiality of Plant Nutrients

 Arnon and Stout in 1939 proposed that the term essential mineral element (mineral

plant nutrient) should be restricted to those elements which fulfill the following

criteria:

 The 4 criteria of essentiality are listed as follows:

1. The plant cannot complete its life cycle (seed to new seed) without it.

2. The element’s function cannot be replaced by another element.

3. The element is directly involved in metabolic activities within the plant (e.g.
photosynthesis, oxidation, etc).
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4. The nutrient must be needed by most plants.
 5.2. Essential Plant Nutrients and their Classification
 The essential plant nutrients may be grouped into three categories.
 They are as follows:
 Primary nutrients: Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
 Secondary nutrients: Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur
 Micronutrients: Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum,
Chlorine and Nickel

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 CONT…
 Essential elements can be classified based on the amount of the element
required for normal growth of plants or according to their relative
concentration in plant tissue as:
 Macronutrients are elements that absorbed by plants in larger amounts
and available in larger amounts in plant tissues (>0.1% of dry plant tissue)
whereas,
 Micronutrients are absorbed by plants in lesser amounts and available in
lower amounts in plant tissues (<0.1% of dry plant tissue).
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 CONT…
 Macronutrients: C(Carbon), H(Hydrogen), O(Oxygen), N(Nitrogen), P (Phosphorus),
K(Potassium), S(Sulphur), Ca(Calcium) and Mg (Magnesium) and
 Micronutrients: Fe (Iron), Mn (Manganese), Cu (Copper), Zn (Zinc), B (Boron), Mo
(Molybdenum), Cl (Chlorine) and Nickel (Ni).

Note: It is important to know that division of these nutrients into these categories does
not mean to imply any element is more essential than another but, only differences in
amounts taken up by plants.

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 5.3. Sources of Essential Plant Nutrients
 Seventeen elements are considered essential nutrients for plant growth, and 14
of these elements come from the soil.
 Plants obtain their C, H, and O from water and air, but the soil:
 Supplies the water-holding capacity

 Provides pore space for O2 and CO2 movements between roots and
atmosphere and

 Supplies CO2 to the atmosphere through decay of organic matter.

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Sources of essential plant nutrients

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 5.4. Functions and Deficiency symptoms of Essential Nutrients
5.4.1. Primary non-mineral nutrients (C, H and O)

 Green plant tissues contain an average of 75% water and 25% dry matter by weight.

 Based on elemental composition, the dry matter consists of 45% carbon, 45%

oxygen, 6% hydrogen.

 Therefore, C, H and O dominate the bulk of organic tissue in the soil, making up over

90% of the dry matter and they considered as the structural components of the plants.

 However, the other elements although found in small amounts play a vital role in

plant nutrition.
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 CONT…

 Plants get these elements primarily from air (CO2) and water (H2O).

 Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) are the most abundant elements in
plant tissue.

 The photosynthetic process in green leaves converts CO2 and H2O into simple
carbohydrates from which amino acids, sugars, proteins, nucleic acid, and other
organic compounds are synthesized.
 This happens in the leaves of plants during photosynthesis:

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 CONT…

 Carbon is the core element of the large organic molecules that comprise all living
things.

 Carbon enters the plant as carbon as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

 It is the “backbone” of all cellular products.

 These include sugars, proteins, lipids (fats) and nucleic acids (including DNA).

 It combines with elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,

phosphorus and other carbon atoms to form not only carbohydrates, but also
fats, proteins and other compounds.
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 CONT…
 Hydrogen: Plants get H by removing it from water molecules. Once the two H atoms
are removed from water, oxygen is only a by product of the process.
 Plants need hydrogen for photosynthesis, energy transfer and other processes
within plants. Important in ionic balance and as the main reducing agent and
plays a key role in the energy relations of cells.
 Oxygen is somewhat like carbon in that it occurs in virtually all organic compounds
of living organisms. O is provided by either water or O2.

 All organisms that conduct aerobic respiration need it. Aerobic respiration is a means
by which organisms can very efficiently utilize stored energy to create readily usable
energy. All living cells need energy to continue life. 16
 5.4.2. Mineral Macronutrients
1. Nitrogen (N)
 Nitrogen is a non-metal inert gas which is most
predominant in the atmosphere.

 The ultimate source of N used by plants is N2 gas, which

constitutes 78% of the earth’s atmosphere.
 Nitrogen has been recognized as an essential nutrient for
plant growth for more than a century and one of the
most yield-limiting nutrients for crop production in the
world.
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 N is a major component of proteins, nucleic acids, hormones, chlorophyll, vitamins and
enzymes essential for plant life.
 Nitrogen metabolism is a major factor in stem and leaf growth (vegetative growth). N
stimulates vegetative growth and results in a deep dark green colored leaves.
 In most soils an application of N fertilizers increases plant growth, especially vegetative
part.
 Increase in growth rate of plant organs at increasing N-levels occurs in the following order:
Root  Shoot  fruit development.
 The typical concentration of N in healthy foliage ranges from 10 to 50g/kg DM.

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 Deficiency of N can reduce yield, could cause yellowing of the leaves and stunted growth.
 The mobile nature of nitrogen in plants makes the chlorosis to be pronounced on older
leaves.
 Chlorosis an abnormally yellow colour of plant tissues, resulting from partial failure to
develop chlorophyll, caused by a nutrient deficiency or the activities of a pathogen.
 Excessive N supply can lead to excessive stem elongation, lodging problems and
reduced flower and fruit production.

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 N deficiency symptoms in maize: Yellowing is prominent in the central part of the leaf
leaving the edges green and "Firing" of tips and margins of leaves

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 2. Phosphorus (P)
 P is much less abundant in plants as compared with N and K in plant DM.
 P is essential not only as a constituent of various organic compounds but also inorganic
phosphorus (Pi) exerts important regulatory functions in energy transfer and storage in
plants.
 Plants use phosphorus to form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
 P atoms provide bridges between the rib nucleoside units of RNA & DNA.
 It also undergoes reversible esterification with many sugars and other compounds
involved in photosynthesis and respiration.
 P is essential to flowering and fruiting and to the transfer of hereditary traits.
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 CONT…
 P stimulates early growth and root formation, hastens maturity, promotes seed
production and makes plants hardy.
 Healthy plants foliage contains 1 to 4 g/kg dry matter.
 The total P content of soils is in the range of 0.02-0.15% of this 20-80% is organic P.
 Inadequate P nutrition affects various metabolic processes: reduce protein synthesis,
synthesis of nucleic acids etc, plants are retarded in growth (poor root system), darkish
green color appear on old leaves, reddish color on stems, leaves fall prematurely and
impaired fruit setting.
 The mobility of P in soil is low, it should be applied before planting and should be
incorporated into the soil or close to root system.
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 P deficiency in Corn/Maize P deficiency in Strawberry

 Common P deficiency symptoms: Delayed maturity, purplish discoloration of leaves,

dying of tips of older leaves, poor fruit and seed development.
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 3. Potassium (K)
 K is the second most abundant mineral nutrient in plants
after N.
 K is important as a regulatory in photosynthesis, energy
metabolism, starch synthesis, nitrate reduction, sugar
degradation, carbohydrate and sugar translocation,
protein synthesis and cell division in roots and other
parts of plants.
 K is different to the other nutrients, it is not incorporated
into any organic compounds but remains as a positively
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charged ion in the plant.
 CONT…
 K is involved in the working of >60 enzymes and it also plays a role in regulating
stomatal opening.
 It is part of the cytoplasmic solution and helps to lower the osmotic potential resulting in
lower water loss from the leaves and better water uptake by the plant roots.
 K increases the growth of underground structures such as tubers and bulbs.
 It helps improve the plants ability to resist diseases and insect problems.
 It increase the strength of the stems resulting in less lodging problems. It also improves
the color and flavor of fruits and vegetables along with the color of flowers.
Concentration of K in plant foliage is 10 to 40g/kg of DM

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 CONT…
 Deficiency symptoms of K: Slow growth, margins on leaves develop a scorched effect
starting on the older leaves, weak stalk, shriveled seed or fruit.

 Its deficiency is related to the functions in plants:

 First reduction in growth without visible symptoms (hidden hunger), short internodes
 reduction elongation.

 Decrease in turgid and a plant becomes flaccid under water stress.

 This causes poor resistance to drought (high transpiration and Low tissue water level)
and susceptible to frost damage.

 Poor resistance to disease and fungal attack also results

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 At later stage, chlorosis or necrosis appear on leaf
CONT…
margins and tips due to production of cationic amines.
 Necrosis is the symptom of the disease that shows the
death of plant cells. It can be caused by pathogens like
fungi, virus and due to deficiency of nutrients like K.
 The older leaves progressively to white-brownish
spots at leaf margin and finally to what looks like
“scorching” of the outer edges of the leaf.
 Plant stalks are typically brittle and lodge easily.
Fruit and seed are shrivelled and dry.
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 4.Calcium (Ca)

 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are

soil minerals having greater solubility and higher Ca content.
 Ca plays a key role in plant growth and development.
 It is an important component of cell walls and in the structure
and permeability of cell membranes.
 The elongation and division of cells requires Ca.
 Ca aids in the uptake of N and seems to increase the uptake of
K over Na.
 Ca conc. in foliage range from 2 to 10g/kg.
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  Factors determining calcium availability
 A large amount of Ca2+ in the soil is present as exchangeable Ca2+, which depends on the
cation exchange capacity of a soil.
 Total calcium supply: Soils that have a low CEC are typically low in calcium.
 Soils with low CEC: heavily leached, highly weathered soils and/or coarse textured
soils.
 Soil pH: Acidic soils tend be low in calcium
 Type of soil: Highly weathered soil is Ca deficient than moderately weathered soils
 Calcium saturation: If Ca in CEC is less than 25% calcium

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 Ca deficiency quite rare except in very acid soils,
 Ca deficiency (Blossom-end rot in
when a plant is Ca deficient, it can prevent the
tomatoes)
terminal buds and apical root tips from forming
resulting in no new growth.
 Thus, deficiency of Ca could stunting of new
growth in stems, flowers and roots.
 Symptoms of Ca deficiency range from distorted
new growth to black spots on leaves and fruit.
 Yellow leaf margins may appear.

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 5.Magnisium (Mg)
 Most of the Mg is present in the soil as primary minerals
(biotite, hornblende, olivine) and secondary minerals
(chlorite, vermiculite, etc).
 It also exists as dolomite in some soils and very little
exists in organic forms.
 Mg content of soils generally lies in the range between
0.05% for sandy and 0.5% for clayey soils.
 Conc. of Mg in plant foliage range from 1 to 4g/kg.

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 CONT…
 The main functions of Mg in plants are related to its capacity to interact with strongly
nucleophilic ligands through ionic bonding and act as a bridging element and form
complexes of different stabilities.
 It is a critical structural component of the chlorophyll molecule and necessary for
functioning of plant enzymes to produce carbohydrates, sugars and fats.
 Most energy processes involving ATP require Mg. Mg also a component of ribosomes
in plants.
 It is used for fruit and nut formation and essential for seed germination

 Magnesium is also an essential element for microbial growth since magnesium

carbonate applied to certain soils increases the reproduction of soil bacteria 32
 Mg is a mobile in the plant and deficiency symptoms of this element first appear in the
older leaves and tissues.
 Mg deficient plants appear chlorotic,
show yellowing between veins of older
leaves, leaves may drop.
 Slender, weak stems, leaves abnormally
thin, tissue may dry and die, leaves
have tendency to curve upward.
 Root growth is reduced in Mg-deficient
plants, and Mg-deficient plants roots turn
dark red 33
 6. Sulphur (S)
 Most of the earth's S is tied up in rocks, salts/ in
oceanic sediments and also be found in the
atmosphere.
 There are three main sources of sulphur
availability to plants. These sources are (1)
organic matter, (2) soil minerals, and (3) sulphur
gases in the atmosphere.
 However, it is possible for plants to absorb
sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas from the atmosphere
at low concentrations. 34
 CONT…
 S is a structural component of aminoacids, proteins, vitamins and enzymes and is
essential to produce chlorophyll.
 Sulfur is a constituent of three amino acids (cystine, methionine and cysteine) that play an
essential role in protein synthesis.
 S is found in proteins/enzymes that regulate photosynthesis and also N fixation. In
proteins, S serves the role of forming disulfide bonds b/n the polypeptide chains.
 Sulfur is present in oil compounds responsible for characteristic odors of plants such as
garlic and onion.
 It is also essential for nodule formation on legumes.

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 CONT…
 S deficiency appears in young leaves light
green to yellowish in color with lighter
color veins.
 Small spindly plants, retarded growth and
delayed maturity.
 Interveinal chlorosis on corn leaves.
 Small leaves and shortened and “hard”
stems.
 Legumes in particular are sensitive to S
deficiency
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 5.4.3. Micronutrients
1. Iron (Fe)
 Fe makes 5.06% of the earth’s crust and found as Fe3+
(ferric ion) and Fe2+ (ferrous ion), iron silicates, iron
sulfides (pyrite) and iron carbonates (ferric and ferrous
carbonate).
 Fe also present in many primary minerals such as
hornblende, biotite, and chlorite.
 Its main role is its participation in many plant metabolic
functions, and it is also a component of many enzymes.
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 CONT…
 It is essential part of enzyme nitrogenase that plays a key role in N fixation
 It serves as an activator for biochemical processes such as respiration, photosynthesis
and symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
 Helps carry electrons to mix oxygen with other elements
 Essential for chlorophyll production
 Typical Plant concentration range from 50 to 250mg/kg.
 Very low solubility and decreases with increasing soil pH but can
be highly available under low pH
 A shortage of Fe also impairs chlorophyll production.

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 CONT…
 Fe deficiency in Peanut
 Most crop plants are more susceptible to Fe

deficiency in the early stage of growth.

 Iron is immobile in the plant and not translocated

from older to newer plant tissues.

 Light yellowing of the terminal leaves, with  Fe deficiency in Maize

interveinal chlorosis of the leaves

 Deficiency of Fe results in pale leaf color of young

leaves followed by yellowing of leaves and large

veins. 39
 2. Manganese (Mn)
 Mn serves as an activator for enzymes in plant
growth processes, and it assists iron in chlorophyll
formation.
 Mn is involved in enzyme activity for photosynthesis,
respiration and N metabolism
 Plants obtain this nutrient from the soil in the form of
manganous ion (Mn+2).
 Typical concentration in healthy foliage range from 30
to 200 mg/kg dry weight basis.
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 CONT…

 Deficiency of Mn in young leaves may show a

network of green veins on a light green
background similar to Fe deficiency.
 In the advanced stage of Mn deficiency, the light
green parts become white, and leaves are shed.
 Brownish, black or grayish spots may appear
next to the veins.

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 3. Copper (Cu)
 Cu concentration in soil solution is very small & > 98% of
it is complexed with OM.
 Cu is involved in chlorophyll formation and is a part of
several enzymes.
 As much as 70% of the Cu in plants may be present in
the chlorophyll, largely bound to chloroplasts. Conc. in
plants from 5-20 mg/kg.
 It participates in lignin formation, protein and
carbohydrate metabolism & possibly required for
symbiotic N fixation. 42
 CONT…
 Cu-deficiency symptoms are first
visible in the form of narrow, twisted
leaves and pale white shoot tips.
 At maturity, panicles/ears are poorly
filled and even empty where the
deficiency is severe.
 In maize, yellowing between leaf veins
takes place, while in citrus the leaves
appear mottled and there is dieback of
new twigs.
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 4. Zinc (Zn)
 Zn is a component of enzymes or a functional cofactor of a
large number of enzymes.
 It is essential to carbohydrate metabolism, protein synthesis
and internodal elongation (stem growth).
 Concentration in the plant range from 25-50mg/kg.

 Common symptoms of Zn deficiency are: stunted plant growth;

poor tillering; development of light green, yellowish, bleached
spots.
 Flowering, fruiting and maturity can be delayed.

 Shoots may die off and leaves can fall prematurely. 44

Zn deficiency - Yellow, light green-white coloring, plants are stunted

Corn/Maize Citrus

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 5. Boron (B)
 B is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity.

 B affects at least 16 functions in plants. These include

flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cell division, starch
formation, carbohydrate synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis,
water relationships and the synthesis and movement of
hormones.

 B must be available throughout the life of the plant.

 Plant conc. Will vary from 6-60mg/kg.

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 CONT…
 B is unique among the essential mineral nutrients
Upper leaves and wilting of tops
present in soil solution as a non-ionized.
 Soluble B in the soil consists of mainly boric acid
(H3BO3) or B(OH)3.

 Symptoms: Death of terminal growth, causing lateral

buds to develop and produce a “witches’ broom” effect.
 Thickened, curled, wilted and chlorotic leaves. Soft
or neurotic spots in fruit or tubers.
 Reduced flowering or improper pollination.

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 6. Molybdenum (Mo)
 Mo is a structural component of the enzymes
nitrogenase and nitrate reductase.

 It essential for N metabolism in plants.

 Without Mo, the synthesis of proteins are blocked

and plant growth ceases.

 Root nodule (N fixing) bacteria also require Mo.

 Seeds may not form completely and N deficiency may

occur if plants are lacking Mo.
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 Mo becomes more available as pH
goes up, the opposite of other
micronutrients.
 Mo deficiencies often occur in acid
and strongly acidic soils.
 The adverse effect of Mo deficiency on
growth and yield is more pronounced
during the reproductive growth stage.
 Conc. of Mo in plants <1mg/kg

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 CONT…
rolling or curling of leaves
 The most common symptom of Mo deficiency is
leaf chlorosis and resembles N deficiency.
 The chlorosis is often followed by marginal
curling, wilting and necrosis.
 Symptoms usually appear on older tissue first,
then show up on young tissue until the terminal
point is killed.
 Deficiency signs are pale green leaves with
rolled or cupped margins.

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 7. Chlorine (Cl)
 Due to the high solubility of Cl– salts, most soil Cl– is
found in the soil solution.
 The Cl ion is highly mobile in the soil solution and easily
taken up by plants.
 Cl is involved in osmosis (movement of water or solutes
in cells), the ionic balance necessary for plants to take up
minerals.
 It is involved in the production of oxygen during
photosynthesis, in raising cell osmotic pressure and in
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maintaining tissue hydration.
 CONT…
 Typical concentration in healthy plants range from
2-20 g/kg.

 Deficiency of Cl in soils is rare because of its

universal presence in nature.

 Usually there are more problems with too much

chlorine or toxicity than with deficiency.

 If deficient symptoms include wilting of leaves at

margins, stubby roots, chlorosis and bronzing.

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 8. Nickel(Ni)
 Ni is a constituent of plant enzyme urease, the enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of
urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide.
 The reaction can be written as follows:

CO(NH2)2 + H2O ⇔ 2NH3 + CO2

 Without Ni, toxic levels of urea can accumulate within the tissue forming necrotic
crowds on the leaf tips. In this case, Ni deficiency causes urea toxicity.
 Plants grown without additional Ni will gradually reach a deficient level about the time
they mature and begin reproductive growth.

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 CONT…

 The concentration of Ni in plants ranges from 1to10 g/kg.

 Ni deficiency in plants causes accumulation of urea in leaf tips because of depressed

urease activity in leaves. This accumulation of urea causes necrosis of leaf tips.

 Ni deficiency will display old leaves of the plants as Ni is a mobile element.

 If Ni deficient plants may fail to reproduce viable seeds.

 Deficiency symptoms:

 Marginal chlorosis of leaves

 Premature senescence and

 Diminished seed set

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 Beneficial mineral elements

 Beneficial elements are the mineral elements which either stimulate growth but are not
essential or which are essential for certain plant species, or under specific conditions.
 Elements considered as beneficial are:
 Sodium (Na)
 Silicon (Si)
 Cobalt (Co)
 Selenium (Se)
 Aluminum (Al) and others.

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