TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

AUTOMATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CONTROL SYSTEM 1
SUBJECT NUMBER : 403036

Anh-Tuan Le, Ph.D

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 CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF FEEDBACK CONTROL

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Analysis of feedback system
1.3. Control objective
1.4. Summary

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 Introduction

Block diagram of a room temperature control system:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 3

 Introduction

Block diagram of a room temperature control system:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 4

 Introduction

Component block diagram of an elementary feedback

control:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 5

 Introduction

Control is the process of making a system

output variable to a reference value.

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 Analysis of Feedback System

To analysis of feedback system, we need a

mathematical model of the system.

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 Analysis of Feedback System

Component block diagram of automobile cruise

control:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 8

 Analysis of Feedback System

Block diagram of automobile cruise control plant:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 9

 Analysis of Feedback System

Open - loop control system:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 10

 Analysis of Feedback System

Open – loop control: the system does not

measure the output and there is no correction
of the actuating signal.

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 Analysis of Feedback System

Closed - loop control system:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 12

 Analysis of Feedback System

In closed - loop control system, a sensor is

used to measure the output and feedback of the
sensed value.

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 Control Objective

Control goals:
• Stability
• Tracking
• Disturbance rejection
• Robustness

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 Control Objective

• Stability: The system must be stable at all

times. This is an absolute requirement.
• Tracking: The system output must track the
reference signal.

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 Control Objective

• Disturbance rejection: the system output must

be as insensitive as possible to disturbance
inputs.
• Robustness: the aforementioned goals must
be met even if the model used in the design is
not completely accurate.
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 Control Objective

A well – designed feedback control system will

be stable, track the desired input, reject
disturbances and robust.

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 Example
Flow controller

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 18

 Example
Heater system

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 Example
The new and improved steam engine

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 20

 Example
Regular steam engine

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 21

 Example
Moisture controller

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 22

 Summary

• Control
• Types of control: open-loop control and closed
loop control
• Block diagram: process, actuator, reference,
controller, output signal

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 Summary

• Well designed feedback control: stable,

tracking a desired input, reject disturbances
and robust
• Classical control – modern control

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 1. Overview of Feedback Control 24

 CHAPTER 2
DYNAMIC MODELS
2.1. Laplace transform
2.1.1. Definition
2.1.2. Laplace properties
2.1.3. Transfer function
2.2. Models of electric circuits
2.3. Dynamics of mechanical systems

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 Laplace transform

2.1.1. Definition
The Laplace transform of , denoted by ,
is a function of the complex variable s =  + j .

F ( s)  L  f (t)   f (t )  e dt  st

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 Laplace transform

Step, Ramp, Impulse, Sinusoid Transfer

0, t  0 (t)
 (t )  
Impulse , t  0 t
function 

satisfies:   (t )dt 1 L  (t)  1



u(t)
1
Step 1, when t  0
u (t )   t
function 0, when t  0
L u (t)  1 s

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 Laplace transform

Step, Ramp, Impulse, Sinusoid Transfer

r(t)
r (t )  t  u (t )
Ramp 1
function t , when t  0 1 t

0, when t  0
L r (t)  1 s
2

f(t)
f (t )  sin t  u (t ) 1 t
Sinusoid
sin t , when t  0
function 
0, when t  0

L  f (t )   s 2   2 
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 Laplace transform

2.1.2. Properties of Laplace Transform

• Superposition L  f1 (t )   f 2 (t )   F1 ( s)   F2 ( s)


• Time delay F1 ( s )   f (t   )e  st dt  e s F ( s )
0

1 s
• Time scaling F1 ( s )    st
f (at )e dt  F  
0
a a

• Shift in Frequency F1 ( s)   e at f (t )e st dt  F ( s  a )
0

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 Laplace transform

2.1.2. Properties of Laplace Transform

• Differentiation L df (t ) dt  sF ( s )  f (0 )

f (0 ) : initial value
t 
• Integration L  f ( )d   F ( s ) s
0 

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 Laplace transform

2.1.3. Transfer function

Y ( s)
H ( s) 
U ( s)
m 1
b0 s  b1s  ...  bm 1s  bm
m
 n n 1
s  a1s  ...  an 1s  an

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 Laplace transform

2.1.3. Transfer function

• The transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace
transform of output to the Laplace transform of
input assuming all zero initial conditions.
• The transfer function is the Laplace transform
of the unit impulse response.

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 Models of electric circuits

Symbols for some linear circuit elements and

their current – voltage relations:

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 Models of electric circuits

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 34

 Models of electric circuits

RCv o (t )  vo (t )  vi (t )

RCvo (t )  vo (t )  RCvi (t )

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 35

 Models of electric circuits

Tvo (t )  vo (t )  KC Tvi (t )  KC vi (t )

R1 R2C R2 1
(T  ; KC  ;  )
R1  R2 R1  R2 KC

Tvo (t )  vo (t )  K C Tvi (t )  K C vi (t )

 R2 
 T  ( R1  R2 )C ; K C  1;   
 R1  R2 

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 36

 Models of electric circuits

vo (t )  K P vi (t )

 Rf Rf 
vo (t )    v1 (t )  v2 (t ) 
 R1 R2 

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 37

 Models of electric circuits

Problems: Write the dynamic equations and the

transfer function for the circuits:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 38

 Models of electric circuits

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 39

 Dynamics of mechanical
systems
Translational motion: The mathematical model
for any mechanical system is Newton’s law:

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 Dynamics of mechanical
systems
Model of cruise control:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 41

 Dynamics of mechanical
systems
The derivative equation of cruise control system:
b u
x x 

m m

For the case of the output variable is the speed:

b u
v  v 
m m

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 Dynamics of mechanical
systems
The transfer function:

1
V ( s) m

U (s) s  b
m

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 Dynamics of mechanical
systems
The response of the car velocity to a constant
input u:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 2. Dynamic Models 44

 Dynamics of mechanical
systems

Problems:
1/ Write the equations of motion for the
automobile (suspension model) ([1]: pp. 48).
2/ Write the equations of motion for the simple
pendulum ([1]: pp. 56).

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 Summary

• Mathematical modelling is required in

analyzing and designing controlled systems.
• In this chapter, analytical models of systems
are developed.

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 CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC RESPONSE

3.1. Poles and zeros

3.2. Inverse Laplace transform
3.3. Declare transfer function using simulation
software

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 CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC RESPONSE

3.4. Equivalent transfer function of the system

3.4.1. Block diagram method
3.4.2. Mason’s rule and the signal flow graph
- Series system
- Parallel system
- Feedback system
3.4.3. Block diagram method using Matlab

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 CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC RESPONSE

3.5. Modeling in state space

3.5.1. Relationship among differential equation,
transfer function and state space model
3.5.2. Derive the state space equation from the
differential equation
• There is no derivative of input signal in
right-hand side of differential equations.
• There is derivative of input signal in
right-hand side of differential equations.

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 CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC RESPONSE

3.5. Modeling in state space

3.5.3. Derive the state space equation from the
transfer function - Phase coordinated method
3.5.4. Derive the characteristic equation from the
state space model

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 CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC RESPONSE

3.6. Effect of poles and zeros

3.7. Transient qualities of system responses
3.7.1. Rise time
3.7.2. Overshoot
3.7.3. Setting time
3.7.4. Analyzing the system qualities using
simulation software
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 CHAPTER 3
DYNAMIC RESPONSE

3.8. Stability
3.8.1. BIBO stability
3.8.2. Routh stability

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 Poles and zeros

A rational transfer function can be described

either as a ratio of two polynomials in s
m 1
b0 s  b1s  ...  bm 1s  bm N ( s )
m
H ( s)  n n 1

s  a1s  ...  an 1s  an D(s)

m
( s  zi )
K i 1

 i  (s  pi )
n

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 Poles and zeros

• K: transfer function gain.

• z1, z2, … , zm: zeros of the system
H (s) s  z  0
i

• p1, p2, … , pn: poles of the system

H (s) s  p  
i

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 Poles and zeros

Poles and zeros:

• The poles and zeros may be complex
quantities.
• Their locations are displayed in complex plane.

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 Inverse Laplace transform

Inverse Laplace transform:

m 1
b0 s  b1s  ...  bm 1s  bm
m
H (s)  n n 1
s  a1s  ...  an 1s  an

m
( s  zi )
K i 1

 i  (s  pi )
n

C1 C2 Cn
   ... 
s  p1 s  p2 s  pn

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 Inverse Laplace transform

Inverse Laplace transform:

• Determine the set of constant Ci:
Ci   s  pi  H ( s ) s  p
i

• The time function: n

h(t )   Ci e pi ( t )

i 1

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 Declare transfer function
using simulation software
Transfer function:
s2 Numerator polynomial
H ( s)  2 
s  2 s  10 Denominator polynomial

Using Matlab:
The coefficients of the numerator polynomial are
displayed as row vector :
num  1 2
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 Declare transfer function
using simulation software
The coefficients of the denominator polynomial are
displayed as row vector :
den  1 2 10
Transfer function in Matlab is declared as:
H  tf  num, den 

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 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
3.4.1. Block diagram method
The block diagram:
 Represents the mathematical relationship
between the components.
 The interconnection of blocks include:
• Summing point
• Pickoff point

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 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 61

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 62

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
1. The block diagram algebra
 Series system
 Parallel system
 Feedback system:
• Negative feedback
• Positive feedback

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 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
Example

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 64

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 65

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 66

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
Example
The interconnections of diagram can be manipulated
without affecting the mathematical relationships.

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 67

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 68

 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
3.4.2. Block diagram using MATLAB
• series
• parallel
• feedback

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 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
3.4.3. Mason’s rule and the signal flow graph
A signal-flow graph:
• Diagram consisting of nodes that are connected by
several directed branches.
• Graphical representation of a set of linear relations.

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 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

Definitions:
• Nodes: The input and output points or junctions
• Branch: Line connecting two nodes.
• Path: Branch or continuous sequence of branches
that can be traversed from one signal (node) to
another signal (node).
• Loop (Self-loop): Closed path that originates and
terminates on the same node.
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 71
 Equivalent transfer function of
the system
Mason’s signal-flow gain formula:
Y s  P k k
T  k

R s 
Where   1   Li   Li L j   Li L j Lm  ...
i i, j i , j ,m
• Pk: Gain of kth path
• D: Determinant of the graph
• Dk: Cofactor of the path Pk
•01/17/2024
L: Self-loop 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 72
 Equivalent transfer function of
the system

Notes
• Two loops are said to be non-touching if they do not
have a common node.
• Two touching loops share one or more common
nodes.

01/17/2024 73
 Modeling in state space

3.5.1. Relationship among differential

equation, transfer function and state space
model
Differential equation

Transfer function .

State space model

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 Modeling in state space

3.5.2. Derive the state space equation from the

differential equation
There is no derivative of input signal in right-hand side of
differential equations

d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t )
n
 a1 n 1
 ...  an 1  an y (t )  b0 r (t )
dt dt dt

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 Modeling in state space

x1 (t )  y (t )
Set xi (t )  x i 1 (t ) (i  2, n)

Therefore, we have
 x1 (t )  x2 (t )
 x (t )  x (t )
 2 3

 
 x (t )  x (t )
 n 1 n

 x n (t )   an x1 (t )  an1 x2 (t )  ...  a2 xn1 (t )  a1 xn (t )  b0 r (t )

y (t )  x1 (t )

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 Modeling in state space

 x (t )  Ax(t )  Br (t )
In Matrix form 
 y (t )  Cx(t )
 x1 (t )   0 1 0  0  0
 x (t )   0 0 1  0  0
 2    
x(t )    ; A        ; B    ;
     
x
 n 1 (t )  0 0 0  1  0
 x n (t )   a n  a n 1  a n2  a1  b0 

C  1 0  0 0

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 Modeling in state space

3.5.2. Derive the state space equation from the

differential equation
There is derivative of input signal in right-hand side of
differential equations
d n y (t ) d n1 y (t ) dy (t )
n
 a1 n 1
 ...  an 1  an y (t ) 
dt dt dt
d m r (t ) d m1r (t ) dr (t )
b0 m
 b1 m 1
 ...  bm1  bm r (t )
dt dt dt

Condition: m = n - 1
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 Modeling in state space
x1 (t )  y (t )
Set
xi (t )  x i 1 (t )   i 1r (t ) (i  2, n)
In Matrix form  x (t )  Ax(t )  Br (t )

 y (t )  Cx(t )
 0 1 0  0   1 
 0 0 1  0   
  2 
A      ; B    ; C  1 0  0 0
   
 0 0 0  1  
 n 1 
 a n  a n 1  an2  a1    n 

1  b0 ;  2  b1  a1  1 ;
 3  b2  a1  2  a 2  1 ;;  n  bn 1  a1  n 1    a n 1  1
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 Modeling in state space

3.5.3. Derive the state space equation from the

transfer function - Phase coordinated method
System transfer function:
m 1
Y ( s) b0 s  b1s  ...  bm1s  bm
m
T (s)   n
R( s) s  a1s n 1  ...  an 1s  an

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 Modeling in state space

Set the auxiliary variable Z(s) that satisfies

Y ( s )  b0 s m  b1s m 1  ...  bm 1s  bm  Z ( s )


 R ( s )   s  a1s  ...  an 1s  an  Z ( s )
n n 1

Inverse Laplace transform

 d m z (t ) d m 1 z (t ) dz (t )
 y(t)  b0 dt m  b1 dt m 1  ...  bm 1 dt  bm z (t )
 n n 1
r (t )  d z ( t ) d z (t ) dz (t )
 a  ...  a  an z (t )
 dt n 1
dt n 1 n 1
dt

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 Modeling in state space
x1 (t )  z (t )
Set x2 (t )  x1 (t )  z (t )

d n 1 z (t )
xn (t )  x n 1 (t ) 
dt n 1
 x (t )  Ax(t )  Br (t )
Set of state variable equations 
 y (t )  Cx(t )
 0 1 0  0  0
 0 0 1  0  0
  
A       ; B    ; C  bm bm 1  b1 b0 
   
 0 0 0  1  0
 an an 1 an  2 a1  1 
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 Modeling in state space

3.5.4. Derive the characteristic equation from

the state space model
state space
State space model state model
space model
 x (t )  Ax(t )  Br (t )

 y (t )  Cx(t )

Characteristic equation
det  sI  A   0

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 83

 Effect of poles and zeros

 Depending on the transfer function, we

analyze the response of the system.
 Response of the system:
• Impulse response (natural response).
• Step response.

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 Effect of poles and zeros

• From the partial fraction expansion:

1
H (s) 
s 

• The impulse response is:

h(t )  e  t 1(t )

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 Effect of poles and zeros
• When σ > 0, impulse response is stable. If σ < 0, unstable.
• The time constant is the time when the response is 1/e
times the initial value, measure the time of decay.

1



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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response

 Effect of poles and zeros

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 87

 Effect of poles and zeros

Example:
2s  1
H ( s)  2
s  3s  2
• Poles:
• Poles farther to the left in the decay
faster than poles closer to the imaginary axis.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 88

 Effect of poles and zeros

 The impulse response:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 89

 Effect of poles and zeros

• Complex poles:
s    jd

• The second order transfer function:

2
n
H ( s)  2
s  2n s  n2
• The denominator of :
  n ; d  n 1   2

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 Effect of poles and zeros

• Where:
 : damping ratio
n : undamped natural frequency

• The poles are located

at a radius n and at an
angle   sin 
1

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 91

 Effect of poles and zeros
When   1, no damping,   0 , the d  n

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 92

 Effect of poles and zeros

Example:

2s  1
H ( s)  2
s  2s  5

n  ? 5(rad/s)
  ? 0.447

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 93

 Effect of poles and zeros

Effects of zeros and additional poles

Effect of zero

s / 
H (s)  2
s  2 s  1
  0.5

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 94

 Effect of poles and zeros

Effects of zeros and additional poles

Effect of zero

s / 
H (s)  2
s  2 s  1
  0.707

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 95

 Effect of poles and zeros

Effects of zeros and additional poles

Effect of zero to the pole locations

24  s /  z 
H (s) 
z ( s  4)( s  6)

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 96

 Effect of poles and zeros

Effects of zeros and additional poles.

Effect of complex zero to the pole locations

 
2
s     2

H (s) 
( s  1) ( s  0.1)  1
 2

 1

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 97

 Effect of poles and zeros

Effects of zeros and additional poles

Effect of extra pole
1
H (s) 
( s / n  1) ( s / n ) 2  2 ( s / n )  1

  0.5

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 98

 Transient qualities of system
responses
Performance specifications for a control system
design involve certain requirements associated
with the time response of the system.
• The rise time tr
• The settling time t s
• The overshoot M p
• The peak time t p

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 Transient qualities of system
responses
3.7.1. The rise time tr :
• The time it takes the system to reach the vicinity
of its new set point.
• The rise time from y = 0.1 to y = 0.9:

1.8
tr 
n

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 Transient qualities of system
responses
The percent overshoot: M p
• Maximum amount the system overshoots its
final value divided by its final value (expressed
in percentage)
• The percent overshoot:



1 2
Mp e  100%, 0    1

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 Transient qualities of system
responses
The peak time: t p
• The time it takes the system to reach the
maximum overshoot point.
• The peak time:


tp 
n 1   2

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 Transient qualities of system
responses

Overshoot versus damping ratio for the 2nd

order system

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 103

 Transient qualities of system
responses
The setting time: ts
• The time it takes the system transient to decay
to a small value so that y(t) is almost in the
steady state.
• The settling time (1%):

4.6
ts 
n
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 104
 Transient qualities of system
responses
Graph of regions in the s plane:

(a): rise time (b): overshoot (c): settling time

(d): composite of all three requirements
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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 105

 Transient qualities of system
responses
Example:

n  3(rad/s)
  0.6
  1.5(s)

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, All Rights Reserved

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 106

 Transient qualities of system
responses
3.7.4. Analyzing the system qualities using
simulation software
 impulse
 step

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 107

 Transient qualities of system
responses
Effects of zeros and additional poles
For the second order system with no finite
zeros, the transient response parameters are
approximated as follows:

1.8 5%   0.7 4.6

tr  M p  16%   0.5 ts 
n 35%   0.3 n

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 Transient qualities of system
responses
Effects of zeros and additional poles
• A zero in the LHP will increase overshoot.
• A zero in the RHP will depress the overshoot.
• An additional pole in the LHP will increase the
rise time.

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 Stability

An LTI system is said to be stable if all the

roots of the transfer function denominator
polynomial have negative real parts (that is,
they are all in the left hand s – plane) and is
unstable otherwise.

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 Stability

Bounded Input Bounded Output Stability

 If every bounded input results in a bounded
output.
 If input u(t) is bounded, u  M   , the
output with impulse response is BIBO stable if

and only if


h( ) d  

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 Stability

1. Stability of LTI Systems:

Consider the LTI system whose transfer function
denominator polynomial leads to the
characteristic equation:

n 1
s  a1s
n
 ...  an  0

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 Stability

The transfer function:

m 1
Y ( s ) b0 s  b1s  ...  bm
m
T (s)   n n 1
R( s) s  a1s  ...  an

m
( s  z i )
K i 1

 i 1 (s  pi )
n

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 Stability

The solution to the differential equation:

n
y (t )   K i e pi t

i 1

The system is stable if and only if (necessary

and sufficient condition) every term goes to zero
as t  
Re  pi   0

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 Stability

• If all poles in the LHP, the system is stable.

• If any pole in the RHP, it is unstable.
• If the system has non-repeated jω axis pole, it
is neutrally stable.

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 Stability

2. Routh’s Stability Criterion.

• Consider the characteristic equation of an nth
n 1
order system s  a1s  ...  an  0
n

• A necessary (but not sufficient) for stability is

that all the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial be positive.

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 Stability

2. Routh’s Stability Criterion

• A system is stable if and only if all the
elements in the first column of the
Routh array are positive.

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 Stability

Routh array
• Arrange the coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial in two rows, beginning with the first
and second coefficients and followed by the even
numbered and odd numbered coefficients.
• Compute the elements from the (n-2)th rows as:
 ci  2,1 
cij  ci  2, j 1   i  ci 1, j 1  i  
 c 
 i 1,1 
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 Stability

Example 1
- The polynomial:
A( s )  s  4 s  3s  2 s  s  4 s  4
6 5 4 3 2

- There are two poles in the RHP because there

are two sign changes.

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 Stability

Routh’s method is also useful in determining

the range of parameters for which a feedback
system remains stable.
Example:

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 Stability

The transient response for the system:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 121

 Stability

Example:

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01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 122

 Stability

Region for stability and the transient response

for the system:

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, All Rights Reserved

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 3. Dynamic Response 123

 Stability

3. Analyzing the stability using MATLAB.

• step
• roots

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 Summary

• The Laplace transform

• The key property of Laplace transform
• The final value theorem
• Block diagrams
• Modeling in state space
• Effect of poles and zeros

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 Summary

• Transient qualities of system responses:

rise time, settling time, overshoot, peak time
• Stability conditions

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 CHAPTER 4
A FIRST ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK

4.1. Definitions
4.2. PID controller
4.2.1. P controller
4.2.2. PI controller
4.2.3. PD controller
4.2.4. PID controller

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 CHAPTER 4
A FIRST ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK

4.3. Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID

Controller
4.3.1. Method 1 of Ziegler-Nichols
4.3.2. Method 2 of Ziegler-Nichols

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 Definitions

The open-loop system:

Output:

Yol  GDol R  GW

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 Definitions

The error, difference between reference input

and system output:
Eol  R  Yol  1  GDol  R  GW
The open-loop transfer function:
Tol ( s )  G ( s ) Dol ( s )

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 Definitions

The closed-loop system:

GDcl G GDcl
Output: Ycl  R W V
1  GDcl 1  GDcl 1  GDcl

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 Definitions

The control input:

Dcl GDcl Dcl

U R W V
1  GDcl 1  GDcl 1  GDcl
The error:
1 G GDcl
Ecl  R W V
1  GDcl 1  GDcl 1  GDcl

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 Definitions

Define:
1 GDcl
S T
1  GDcl 1  GDcl

Rewrite: Ycl  TR  GSW  TV

U  Dcl SR  TW  Dcl SV

Ecl  SR  GSW  TV

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 Definitions

Stability:
The open loop:
• Define: b( s ) c( s)
G(s)  Dol ( s ) 
a( s) d (s)
• Stability requirements: neither a(s) nor d(s) may
have roots in the RHP.

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 Definitions

Stability:
The closed loop:
• The system characteristic equation:
a ( s ) d ( s )  b ( s )c ( s )  0
• More freedom to the controller design than the
open-loop case.

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 Definitions

Example:
1 K s   
G(s)  2 Dol ( s )   1
s 1 s 

Let   0.8 , n  4 . Solve for K and 

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 Definitions

Tracking:
 The tracking problem is to cause the output to
the reference input as closely as possible.
 In the open – loop case, if the plant is stable, in
principle, the controller can be selected.

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 Definitions

Tracking:
Three conditions:
• The controller transfer function must be proper.
• Must not request an unrealistically fast design.
• Once cancel any pole in LHP, the system
response may expose to unacceptable
transient.

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 Definitions

Example:
1 c s 2
 c1s  c0
G (s)  2 Dol ( s )  2

s  3s  9 s ( s  d1 )
Desired characteristic equation:
( s  6)( s  3)( s 2  3s  9)  0
A) Solve for the parameters of this controller.
B) Steady state error when reference input is a step.

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 Definitions

Regulation: is to keep the error small when

the reference is at most a constant set - point
and disturbance are present.
We have:
1 G GDcl
Ecl  R W V
1  GDcl 1  GDcl 1  GDcl

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 Definitions

Contribution of the plant disturbance to the

system error: G
W
1  GDcl

 To reduce this, Dcl must be large.

Error term for the sensor noise:
GDcl
V
1  GDcl
 To reduce it, Dcl must be small.
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 Definitions

 To reduce all noise, we must observe

terms in function of frequency.
 The plant disturbance occurs at very low
frequencies, the sensor noise occurs at
higher frequencies.

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 Definitions

 Design controller large at low frequency and

small at a higher frequency.
 The control engineer must determine in each
case the best place on the frequency.

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 Definitions

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity S of a transfer function Tol to a
T
G

plant gain G, is defined to be the ratio of the

 Tol
fractional change to the fractional change in
Tol
G.  Tol G
S T
G
Tol G

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 Definitions

Sensitivity:
Open loop:
• The plant gain G changes to be G   G
• The open loop controller gain Dol
• The nominal overall gain Tol  GDol
 The gain change:  Tol   GDol

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 Definitions

Sensitivity:
Open loop:
 Tol G
• The sensitivity: S T
G
Tol G
 Tol  G
• And 
Tol G
• This means a 10% error in G would yield a 10%
error in Tol , S = 1

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 Definitions

Sensitivity:
Closed loop:
• The plant gain G changes to be G G
• The open loop controller gain Dcl
GDcl
• The nominal overall gain Tcl 
1  GDcl
dTcl
 The gain change:  Tol  G
dG
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 Definitions

Sensitivity:
Closed loop:
1
• The sensitivity: S T
G
1  GDcl

• In feedback control, the error in the overall transfer

function gain is less sensitive to variations in the
plant gain by a factor of S.

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 Definitions

Sensitivity:
Closed loop:
• The complementary sensitivity function:
GDcl
T  1 S
1  GDcl

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 Definitions

System type:
• In the regulator problem, the reference input is a
constant.
• Consider the steady state errors in a stable system
with polynomial inputs  classify systems as to type
according to the degree of the polynomial.

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 Definitions

System type for tracking

• The error: E 
1
R  SR
1  GDcl
• The polynomial input r (t )  t / k !1(t ) which
k

1
transform is R  k 1
s
• Step input: k=0, position input.
• Ramp input: k=1, velocity input.
• Parabola input: k=2, acceleration input

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 Definitions

System type for tracking

• The error:

1 1
lim e(t )  lim sE ( s)  lim s
t  s 0 s 0 1  GD s k 1
cl

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 Definitions

System type for tracking

• A system GDcl has no integrator, and a unit step
input (polynomial of degree 0)  this system is Type
0 and
K p  lim GDcl ( s)
s 0

is called position error constant.

1
ess 
1 K p

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 Definitions

System type for tracking.

• A system GDcl has one integrator, and a ramp
input (polynomial of degree 1)  this system is Type
1 and
K v  lim sGDcl ( s)
s 0

is called velocity error constant.

1
ess 
Kv
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 Definitions

System type for tracking

• A system GDcl has 2 integrator, and a parabola
input (polynomial of degree 2)  this system is Type
2 and
K a  lim s GDcl ( s )2
s 0
is called acceleration error constant.
1
ess 
Ka
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 155
 Definitions

System type for tracking

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, All Rights Reserved

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 156
 Definitions

The relationship between ramp response and Kv.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 157

 Definitions

System type for tracking

• Example 1. Determine the system type and the
relevant error constant for speed control with
proportional feedback given by D( s )  k P , the plant
A
G
 s 1

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 Definitions

System type for tracking

• Example 2. Determine the system type and the
relevant error constant for speed control with
proportional feedback given by D( s)  k P  k I / s
A
the plant G 
 s 1

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 PID controller

Three term or PID controller transfer function:

kI
Dc ( s )  k P   k D s
s
k P is the proportional term, k I is the integral term
k D is the derivative term

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 PID controller

Proportional control (P)

 The feedback control signal is linearly
proportional to the system error
u (t )  k P e(t )

 The transfer function controller:

U ( s)
 Dcl ( s )  k P
E ( s)

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 PID controller

Example: (2nd order

system)
1
G (s)  2
s  1.4s  1

- KP is large to get small steady state error.

- Damping may be much too low.
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 162
 PID controller

For systems of large order:

• Higher gain increase the speed of response,
large transient overshoot, less overall damping.
• Lead to instability for a high enough gain.
• Nonzero steady state offset in response to a
constant reference input (system type 0).
• Not rejecting a constant disturbance input.

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 PID controller

To improve the steady state accuracy: using

the integral control.
Integral Control (I)
• The feedback control signal is linearly to the
integral of the system error.
t
u (t )  k I  e(t )d
t0
• The transfer function controller:
U ( s) kI
 Dcl ( s ) 
E ( s) s
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 164
 PID controller

Integral Control (I)

• The control signal is a
summation of all past values
of the tracking error.
• The control signal is
proportional to the area

under the system error curve.

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 PID controller

Derivative Control (D)

• The feedback control signal is linearly to the
integral of the system error.
u (t )  k D e (t )
• The transfer function controller:
U ( s)
 Dcl ( s )  k D s
E ( s)

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 PID controller

Derivative Control (D)

• Advantage: improve closed – loop system stability,
speeding up the transient response, reducing overshoot.
• Disadvantage: amplify noise

Derivative Control is never used by itself, usually

augmented by proportional control.

u (t )  k D e (t )
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 167
 PID controller

Proportional Plus Integral Control (PI)

• Adding an integral term to the proportional
• Controller to achieve the lower steady state error.
t
u (t )  k P e(t )   e( )d
t0
• The transfer function controller
U ( s) kI
 Dcl ( s )  k P 
E ( s) s

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 168

 PID controller

Proportional Plus Integral Control (PI)

• In practice, PI are used together for a faster
response.
• PI controller can reject completely constant bias
disturbances.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 169

 PID controller

PID control
• PID control:
t
u (t )  k P e(t )  k I  e( )d  k D e (t )
t0

• PID transfer function:

U ( s) kI
 Dcl ( s )  k P   k D s
E ( s) s

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 170

 PID controller

PID control
• Depending on the nature of dynamic response of
the system, three parameters of PID control can
be determined.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 171

 PID controller

Example
• PID control of Motor Speed ([1]: page 223)
• PI control for a DC motor position control ([1]:
page 224)

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 172

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

• Selecting values for the several terms was

often hit and miss affair.
• Tuning PID controller based on experiments
on the process itself.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 173

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

Process reaction curve:

 std
Y ( s ) Ae

U (s)  s  1

The first order system

with a time delay

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 174

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

Two methods for tuning PID controller

The first method: closed
loop step response
transient with a
decay ratio is
approximately 0.25

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 175

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller
 1 
Dc ( s )  k P 1   TD s 
 TI s 

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, All Rights Reserved

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 176

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

The second method (ultimate sensitivity method):

adjusting the parameters are based on evaluating
the amplitude and frequency of the oscillations.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 177

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

 The gain Ku is increased until the system

becomes marginally stable.
 The corresponding gain is defined as Ku, the

period of oscillation is Pu.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 178
 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 179

 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of the PID
Controller

Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, All Rights Reserved

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 180
 Modelling PID controller

• Introduction MATLAB/SIMULINK
• Introduction Simulink library: Source, Sink,
Math, Signal Routing.
• Introduction PID controller block
• Build a model of PID controller

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 181

 Summary

• The most importance measure of the

performance of a control system is the system
error to all inputs.
• Feedback can be used to stabilize an unstable
system, reduce error, improve tracking, …

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 182

 Summary

• System type k, the steady state errors for unity

feedback systems of type 0, 1, 2
• Increasing the proportional gain reduces
steady state error but high gain destabilize the
system

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 183

 Summary

• Integral control provides robust reduction in

steady state error but make the system less
stable.
• Derivative control increases damping and
improves stability.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 184

 Summary

• PID controller
 kI 
U ( s)   kP   kD s  E (s)
 s 
 1 
U ( s)  kP 1   TD s  E ( s )
 TI s 
U ( s )  Dc ( s ) E ( s )
• Tuning PID controller
• Modelling PID controller using MATLAB
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 4. A First Analysis of Feedback 185
 Chapter 5
THE ROOT – LOCUS DESIGN METHOD

5.1. Definitions
5.2. Root locus method
5.3. System stability according to root
locus using Matlab
5.4. Design of lead and lag compensators
using root-locus method

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 186

 Definitions

• The basic feedback system:

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 187

 Definitions

• The closed loop transfer function:

Y (s) Dc ( s )G ( s )
 T (s) 
R(s) 1  Dc ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )

• The characteristic equation:

1  Dc ( s)G ( s ) H ( s)  0

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 188

 Definitions

For study of the roots as a parameter change,

called K, define component polynomials a(s)
and b(s) so that the characteristic equation is
in the form:
b( s )
a ( s )  Kb( s )  1  KL( s )  0; L( s) 
a(s)

b(s) of degree m, a(s) of degree of

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 189
 Definitions

 We need to plot locus of all possible roots

when K varies from zero to infinity.
 The resulting plot aid us in:
• Selecting the best value of K.
• Determining the consequences of additional
dynamic added to Dc(s) as compensation.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 190

 Definitions

• Definition: the root locus is the set of values of

s for which 1  KL( s )  0 is satisfied as the real
parameter K varies from 0 to +∞.
• Typically, 1  KL( s )  0 is the characteristic
equation of the system, and in this case the
roots on the locus are the closed-loop poles of
that system.
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 191
 Root Locus Method

1. Rules for determining a root locus.

• Rule 1: The n branches of the locus start at the
poles of L(s) and m of these branches end on
the zeros of L(s).
• Rule 2: The loci are on the real axis to the left
of an odd number of poles and zeros.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 192

 Root Locus Method

1. Rules for determining a root locus.

• Rule 3: For large s and K, n-m branches of
the loci are asymptotic to line at angles
radiating out from the point s   on the real axis.
180  360 (l  1)
0 0
l  , l  1, 2,3,..., n  m
nm

  pi   zi
nm
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 193
 Root Locus Method

1. Rules for determining a root locus.

• Rule 4: The angle of departure of a branch
of the locus form single pole is given by:
dep   i  i 180 0

Where   i is the sum of the angles to the

remaining poles and  i is the sum of the
angles to all the zeros.
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 194
 Root Locus Method

1. Rules for determining a root locus.

• Rule 4: The angle of arrival of a branch at a
zero of multiplicity q is given by:

arr   i  i 180  360 l  1 0 0

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 195

 Root Locus Method

2. Selected Illustrative
root loci
The addition of the zero
has pulled the locus
into the LHP, a point of
general importance in
constructing a compensation. s 1
G(s)  2
s
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 196
 Root Locus Method

2. Selected Illustrative
root loci
The addition pole moving
in from the far left tends to
push the locus branches to
the right as it approaches
a given locus. s 1
G (s)  2
s ( s  12)
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 197
 Root Locus Method

2. Selected Illustrative root loci

s 1 s 1
G (s)  2 G (s)  2
s ( s  4) s ( s  9)
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 198
 System Stability according to Root
Locus using Matlab

3. Plotting a root locus using MATLAB

b( s )
a ( s )  Kb( s )  1  KL( s )  0; L( s) 
a(s)
• Command rlocus, rlocfind
• Using rltool feature

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 199

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

• Compensation: lead compensation, lag

compensation, notch compensation.
• Lead compensation approximates the PD control,
speed up a response, lowering rise time and
decreasing the transient overshoot.
• Lag compensation approximates PI control,
improve the steady state accuracy.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 200

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

• Notch compensation achieve stability for systems.

• Compensation with a transfer function of the form:
sz
Dc ( s )  K
s p
• It called lead if z < p and lag if z > p

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 201

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

• The feedback system with compensation:

• The characteristic equation:

1  Dc ( s )G ( s )  1  KL( s )  0

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 202

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

1. Lead Compensation

1
G (s) 
s ( s  1)

First, start with

Dc ( s )  K (solid line)
Dc ( s )  K ( s  2)(dashed line)
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 203
 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

1. Lead Compensation

K ( s  2)
Dc ( s ) 
s  10
K ( s  2)
Dc ( s ) 
s  20

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 204

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

1. Lead Compensation
• Selecting z and p is done by trial and error,
minimized with experience.
• In general, zero is placed in the neighborhood of
the closed loop n (determined by rise time or
settling time requirements).

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 205

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

1. Lead Compensation
The pole is located at a distance 5 to 20 times the
value of the zero location.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 206

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

2. Lag Compensation
The lag compensation is determined to raise Kv
(or some other steady state error constant) but is

Nearly unity (no effect) at the higher frequency n .

sz
Dc ( s )  K ,z  p
s p

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 207

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

2. Lag Compensation
• Values of z and p are small compared with n
•

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 208

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

2. Lag Compensation
Example:
1 91( s  2)
G ( s)  Dc1 ( s ) 
s ( s  1) s  13
K v  14

Design lag compensation such that K v  70

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 209

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

2. Lag Compensation
• Calculate: n  7(rad/s)
z
• Choose:  5 , p  0.01
p
s  0.05
Dc 2 ( s ) 
s  0.01

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 210

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

2. Lag Compensation

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 211

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

3. Notch Compensation
• Lead and Lag compensation
91( s  2) s  0.05
Dc1 ( s ) 
s  13 s  0.01
• It oscillates at about 50rad/s. The plant transfer
function is estimated:
2500
G ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  s  2500)
2

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 212

 Design of Lead and Lag Compensators
using Root-Locus Method

4. Design dynamic compensation using

MATLAB
• rlocus
• rlocfind
• rltool

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 213

 Summary

• A root locus graph

1  KL( s )  0
• The key feature for aid in drawing root locus
• Lead, Lag, Notch compensation
• Plotting root locus and design compensation
• Using MATLAB: rlocus, rltool, rlocfind

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 5. The Root - Locus Design Method 214

 Chapter 6
THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

6.1. Frequency response

6.2. Specific Dynamic functions
6.3. Bode diagram
6.4. Stability using frequency method
6.5. Draw and analyze frequency response
using simulation software

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 215

 Frequency Response

• The frequency response: a linear system’s

response to sinusoidal inputs
• Consider system:
Y (s)
G ( s) 
U (s)
• Input u(t) is the sine wave with an amplitude A
A0
u (t )  A sin 0t  U (s)  2
s  02

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 216

 Frequency Response

• The output: A0

Y ( s)  G ( s) 2
s  02

y (t )  1e  ...   n e  2  0 cos(0t   )

p1t pn t

• If the system is stable, the steady state

response of the system will be the sinusoidal
excitation

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 217

 Frequency Response

1
G(s)  u (t )  sin10t
s 1
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 218
 Frequency Response

The sinusoidal term can be expressed:

y (t )  AM cos 0t   
where:
M  G ( j0 )  G ( s ) s  j
0

Re G( j )  Im G( j ) 

2 2
 0 0

Im G ( j0 ) 
  tan 1

Re G ( j0 ) 
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 219
 Frequency Response

In polar form:
y (t )  AM cos 0t   
j
where: G ( j0 )  Me
M: magnitude
 : phase

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 220

 Frequency Response

Example:
Frequency-response
evaluation:
s 1
D(s) 
s /10  1

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 221

 Frequency Response

Frequency Response
Example:
Responses of
second-order
systems versus ζ
1
G (s) 
 s / n   2  s / n   1
2

(a) impulse responses

(b) step responses

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 222

 Frequency Response

• Bandwidth: maximum frequency at which the

output of a system will track an input sinusoid in
a satisfactory manner
• Resonant peak: the maximum value of the
frequency response magnitude

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 223

 Frequency Response

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 224

 Bode diagram

1. Bode plot techniques

 Advantage of Bode plots
• Design compensator
• Bode plot can be determined experimentally
• Bode plots of system in series simply add
• Permit wider range of frequency

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 225

 Bode diagram

1. Bode plot techniques

 Bode plots rules
• Manipulate the open loop transfer function into
the Bode form:

KG ( j )  K 0 ( j )
 j 1  1 j 2  1 ...
n

 j a  1 j b  1...

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 226

 Bode diagram

1. Bode plot techniques

 Bode plots rules
K
• Determine the value of n for the 0 ( j ) n
. Plot the
low frequency magnitude asymptote through the
point K 0 at   1(rad/s) with the slope of n20db
per decade

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 227

 Bode diagram

1. Bode plot techniques

 Bode plots rules
• Extend the low frequency asymptote until the first
frequency breakpoint, then step the slop by ±1,±2,
depending on whether the break point is from a first –
or second – order term in numerator or denominator.
Continue through all break points in ascending order.

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 228

 Bode diagram

1. Bode plot techniques

 Bode plots rules
• Plot the low frequency asymptote of the phase
Curve,   n  90
• The approximate phase curve change by ±90 0 or
±1800 at each break point in ascending order,
Depending on the first - or second – order system

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 229

 Bode diagram

Example:
10
KG ( s ) 

s s 2  0.4s  4 
10 1
KG ( s ) 

4 s s 2 / 4  2  0.1 s / 2  1 

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 230

 Bode diagram

Example:

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 231

 Bode diagram

Example:

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 232

 Bode diagram

2. The steady state error

• The steady state error of feedback system
decrease as the gain of the open-loop transfer
function increase
• In plotting magnitude curve, the open-loop
transfer function at the low frequencies is
approximated: KG ( s )  K 0  j 
n

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 233

 Bode diagram

2. The steady state error

So, the larger value of magnitude on the low
frequency asymptote, the lower steady state
error in the closed-loop system
• n=0, type 0 system, K p  K 0
• n=1, type 1 system, K v  A  

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 234

 Bode diagram

2. The steady state error

Example: K v  1000*0.01  10

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 235

 Stability using Frequency Method

The system is stable for all small gain values

and becomes unstable if the gain increase 
measure stability margin: gain margin and phase
margin

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 236

 Stability using Frequency Method

• Gain margin: vertical distance between the

KG  j   1 curve and the magnitude = 1 line at

the frequency where G  j   180 0

• Phase margin: amount of the phase of G(jω)

exceeds -1800 when KG  j   1

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 237

 Stability using Frequency Method

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 238

 Draw and analyze frequency response
using simulation software

• bode
• margin
• semilog
• loglog
• logspace

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 239

 Summary

• The frequency-response Bode plot

• Second-order system
• Phase margin
• Bandwidth

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 6. The Frequency - Response 240

 Chapter 7
STATE – SPACE DESIGN

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Analyze the system based on state space
model
7.2.1. A review of state space equations
7.2.2. State diagram of the system
7.2.3. Declare the state space using Matlab

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 241

 Chapter 7
STATE – SPACE DESIGN

7.3. Design of the state feedback controller

7.3.1. Diagram of state feedback control system
7.3.2. Design methods
• Controllability
• Observability
• Method of Pole placement
7.3.3. Modeling the state feedback controller with
Matlab
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 242
 Introduction

A control system design:

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 243

 Introduction

State-space control design is the technique in

which the control engineer designs a dynamic
compensation by using state variable description.

Advantage of state space:

• Study more general models
• Introduce the ideas of geometry into differential
equations
• Connect internal and external descriptions
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 244
 Analyze the system based on state
space model

1. Definition
• The state variable form as a vector equation:
x  Ax  Bu
• The output: y  Cx  Du
• The column vector x: state of the system, contain n
elements for nth – order system
• A (nn): system matrix, B(n1): input matrix, C(1n):
output matrix, D: a scalar, direct transmission term

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 245

 Analyze the system based on state
space model

2. System description in state space

Example: x  v
b 1
v   v  u
m m
 0 1  0 
 x    b   x   1  u
v  0   v   
 m m
y  1 0   x
v 
01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 246
 Analyze the system based on state
space model

3. Block diagram and state space

Integrator:

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 247

 Analyze the system based on state
space model

3. Block diagram and state space

Example: Find a state-variable description

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 248

 Analyze the system based on state
space model

3. Block diagram and state space

y  6 y  11 y  6 y  6u
Differential equation: 
y  6 y  11 y  6 y  6u


Define the state-variables x1  

y, x2  y, x3  y

to obtain x1  6 x1  11x2  6 x3  6u

x 2  x1
x 3  x2

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 249

 Analyze the system based on state
space model

3. Block diagram and state space

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 250

 Analyze the system based on state
space model

3. Block diagram and state space

which provides the state-variable description:

01/17/2024 403036 - Chapter 7. State - Space Design 251

 Analyze the system based on state
space model

3. Block diagram and state space

b( s ) s2
Example: G ( s )   2
a ( s ) s  7 s  12

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3. Block diagram and state space

x1  7 x1  12 x2  u
x 2  x1
y  x1  x2
which provides the state-variable description:

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Consider the system:

x  Ax  Bu
y  Cx  Du
Consider a change of state from x to new state z
We have: x  Tz
z  Az  Bu y  Cz  Du
A  T AT -1 C  CT
B  T-1B DD

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To convert a general state description to

canonical form
• The controllability matrix    B AB ... A B 
 n-1

• Compute t n  0 0 ... 1  1

• Construct t n A  n 1

1 t A n2 
T  n 
...
t 
 n 

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• When the controllability matrix  is

nonsingular, the corresponding A and B matrix
are said to be controllable.
• We can transform a given state description to
control canonical form if the controllability matrix
is nonsingular.

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• A change of state by a nonsingular linear

transformation does not change controllability.
• Controllability is a function of the state of the
system and cannot be decided from a transfer
function.

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In modal form, suppose:

TA  AT

Above equation is equivalent:

pi t i  At i
t i eigenvector, pi eigenvalue.

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Transfer function:
Y ( s)
 C  sI  A  B  D
1
G ( s) 
U ( s)

Poles: det  sI  A   0

det  s I  A  B  0
Zeros:  C D 

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Observability matrix
C 
CA 
  
CA n1 

We can find a transformation to observer

canonical form if the observability matrix is non-
singular.
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We can find a transformation to observer

canonical form if the observability matrix is non-
singular.
 a1 1 0 0  0  b1 
x o  A o xo  Bo u A o   a2 0 1 0  ; B o  b2 
y  Co xo  Do u      
 an 0 0 0 0  bn 
Co  1 0 0  0 ; Do  0

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1. Overview:
• Control law: assign a set of pole locations for
the closed loop system that will correspond to
satisfy dynamic response.
• If the full state is not available: estimator
design.

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1. Overview:
Control law and estimator fit together, referred to
as compensation

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2. Finding the control law:

The nth – order system:
x  Ax  Bu

The control law:

 x1 

u  Kx    K1 K 2 ... K n   
x2 
...
 xn 

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2. Finding the control law:

The closed-loop system:
x  Ax  BKx
The characteristic equation of this closed-loop
system:
det  sI  ( A  BK )  0

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2. Finding the control law:

• The control law design consist of choosing the
gain K so that roots of closed-loop system are in
desirable locations
• The corresponding desired characteristic
equation:  s  s1  s  s2 ...  s  sn   0
• K are obtained by matching coefficients
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2. Finding the control law:

Example
 x1    0 1  x1   0  u
 x1   02 0   x1  1 

Find the control law so that the system has

two poles at 20

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2. Finding the control law:

In order to study the transient response of pole
placement design to input commands, the
control law:
u  uss  K  x  x ss 

uss , x ss desired final value of state & control input

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2. Finding the control law:

• Solve the values for which yss  rss for any value
of rss
• Let: x ss  N x rss , uss  N u rss
• We have:
1
A B   N x   0   N x   A B  0
C D   N u  1   N u  C D  1 

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2. Finding the control law:

The control law:
u  N u r  K (x  N x r )
 Kx  ( N u  KN x )r

• The most effective and widely used technique

of linear control system design is the optimal
linear quadratic regulator (LQR).

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2. Finding the control law:

LQR control is to find the control such that the
performance index is minimized.



J   x Qx  u Ru dt
T T

0

Q, R : diagonal matrices

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2. Finding the control law:

• The control law:
u  Kx

• In practice, Q and R are chosen such that:

• Q 
ii =1/maximum acceptable value of 
xi
2


R ui 
2
• ii =1/maximum acceptable value of

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2. Finding the control law:

Matlab function
• acker
• lqr

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 Summary

• State space description

• Control, observer form
• Open-loop poles and zero can be computed
from the state description matrices
• Control characteristic equation
• Good closed-loop pole locations depend on
• the desired transient respond

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 Summary

• State space model is both controllable and

observable
• Controllable, observable
• Control law design and estimator design

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