DIPLOMA IN OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Introduction to
Occupational
Safety
CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL HAZARD
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, student should be

able to:

1. Define physical hazard.

2. Identify the sources and the
occupational at risk of physical hazard.
3. Describe the effect and control
measures of physical hazard. 2
Type of Physical Hazard

1. Electrical Hazard
2. Radiation Hazard
3. Mechanical Hazard
4. Extreme Temperature Hazard
5. Vibration Hazard
6. Pressure Hazard
7. Noise Hazard
1.0 Electrical Hazard
Introduction

 Electricity is the flow of electrons (current) through a

conductor.
 Requires a source of power: usually a generating
station.
 Travels in a closed circuit.
 When you become part of the circuit, the injury may be
fatal.
Occupational at Risk

 Engineers, electricians, and other

professionals work with electricity
directly, including working on
overhead lines, cable harnesses, and
circuit assemblies.
 Others, such as office workers and
sales people, work with electricity
indirectly and may also be exposed
to electrical hazards.
Effects of Electricity on the
Human Body: Electrical Shock
 Range of currents lasting 1 second will illicit the
following reactions:
 1 milliamp: Just a faint tingle.
 5 milliamps :Slight shock felt. Most people can let go.
 6-30 milliamps: Painful shock. Muscular control is lost.
This is the range were “freezing current” starts. It may
not be possible to let go.
Effects of Electricity on the
Human Body: Electrical Shock
 50-150 milliamps: Extremely painful shock, respiratory
arrest, (breathing stops) and severe muscle
contractions. Death is possible.
 1,000-4,300 milliamps (1-4.3 amps): Arrhythmic heart
pumping action, muscles contract, and nerve damage
occurs. Death is likely.
 10,000+ milliamps (10 amps): Cardiac arrest and severe
burns occur. Death is probable.
Effects of Electricity on the
Human Body: Electrical Burns
 The most common shock related, nonfatal injury is a
burn.
 Burns caused by electricity may be of three types:
 Electrical burns
 Arc burns
 Thermal contact burns
 Electrical burns need to be given immediate medical
attention.
Electrical Hazard Protections

 Insulation
 Plastic or rubber coverings that does not
conduct electricity.
 Insulation prevents live wires from coming in
contact with people thus protecting them
form electrical shock.
 Grounding
 Grounding is another method of protecting you
from electric shock.
 However, it is normally a secondary protective
measure.
Electrical Hazard Protections

 Guarding
 These structures include: Boxes,
Screens, Covers, Partitions
 Electrical protective devices
 Personal Protective Equipment
 Foot protection: “EH” if it’s approved
for electrical work.
 Hand protection: Rubber hand gloves
Electrical Hazard Protections

 Electrical PPE with any of the following defects

may not be used:
 If holes, tears, punctures, or cuts are present.
 Texture changes: Swelling, softening, hardening,
or becoming sticky or inelastic.  An embedded
foreign object.
 Any other defect that damages the insulating
properties.

 Safe work practices

 Lock out and Tag out circuits and equipment.
2.0 RADIATION Hazard
 Specific Characteristics
Radiant Energy
 Energy emitted from a body and travels in straight lines
(wave forms) through space.
 Cannot be seen but human body can detect it in the
form of heat (skin thermal sensory organs), but human
eyes can perceive objects in the visible range
(spectrum).
 Specific Characteristics
 Defined the manner in which radiant energy is
emitted in all directions from its source into the
surrounding space.

 OSH’s concern is about the ability of radiation to

cause harm to human when the energy released
interact with our body’s structure.
 Specific Characteristics
 Radiation having a wide range of energies form the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 The spectrum has two major divisions:
 Ionizing
 Non-ionizing
 Specific Characteristics
• Ionizing
 Has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons
from atoms

 Non-ionizing
 Radiation that has enough energy to move atoms in a
molecule around or cause them to vibrate, but not
enough to remove electrons
 Sources of Radiation
Ionising Radiation
1. Natural
 Cosmic (Extraterrestrial) sources
 high-energy photons (electromagnetic radiation) &
 High-energy charged particles – alpha (), beta ()
 Radioactive elements in soil & rocks (e.g. uranium,
thorium, radium and potassium-40)
 Gamma radiation are photons of electromagnetic
radiation.
 Natural radioactivity gets into the human by
inhalation and ingestion.
 Sources of Radiation
Ionising Radiation

2. Artificial sources
- Medical procedures (medical and dental x-rays)
- Nuclear power reactors
- Industrial radiography (piping, welding joints)
- Cathode ray tubes (TV screens and computer
monitors)
- electron microscopes
 Sources of Radiation
Non-ionised radiation
- Ultraviolet rays (example: welding arc)
- Visible rays
- Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation)
- Maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation)
- Infra-red (example: metal manufacturing workers)
- Microwaves
- Radio waves
 Related Legislation
• Atomic Energy Licenses Act 1984
• Atomic Energy Licenses Act 1984
- Radiation Protection (Licensing) Regulations
1986
• Atomic Energy Licenses Act 1984
- Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards)
Regulations 1988
 Types of Exposure
 Occupation
- Welding activities, metal manufacturing,
metal boiling/melting, diagnostic radiology test
workers, printing, communication, army
 Medical
- Patient: purpose of investigation and disease
treatment
 Community
- From natural sources
 Occupational at Risk
 Medical personnel that use of ionizing radiation in
medicine also continues to grow.
 Radiotherapy involves the use of ionizing radiation for
treatment of diseases such as cancer.
 Manufacturing and construction. There are many
common uses of ionizing radiation in manufacturing and
construction. Ionizing radiation is used, for example, in
inspecting welds, measuring the thickness of
microelectronic wafers, developing polymers in the
rubber and plastics industries, and measuring and
inspecting the quantity and quality of goods produced.
Health Effects: Ionised Radiation
Dependent on:
Intensity of the absorbed dose
 Types of radiation

- Example: neutron and alpha cells are more

dangerous than photon x-rays
 Organ sensitivities

- Example: reproductive tissues are more sensitive

than thyroids
Health Effects: Ionised Radiation
Acute Effects (symptoms within hours, days or weeks)
 Nausea & vomiting; loss of appetite
 Skin reddening ,pigmentation, burns & ulcerations
 Loss of hair
 Decreased white blood cells
 Decreased sperm count.
 Massive damage to bone marrow, gastro-intestinal tract and
neuromuscular system – Death
Chronic Effects
 Eye Cataract formation
 Cancer (latent period of 5 to 30 years)
 Genetic mutation (malformed offspring) –not confirmed in human.
Health Effects: Non-Ionised Radiation
Acute Effects
 Damage to eyes (UV, infra red, Laser & Maser )
 Arc Eye in welding works
 Skin destruction (UV and infra-red)
 Skin burns (high-energy laser & maser, radio-frequency)
 Heat stress (micro waves)

Chronic Effects
 Premature skin ageing & skin cancer (UV)
 Cataract formation (Infra red)
 Control Measures
Three basic principles
• Justification of a work practice
• Optimum protection at work
- application of ALARA Concept (As Low As
Reasonably Achievable), time, distance, shielding
• Regulatory Limits on Radiation Dose (Individual dose
limits)
- Not exceeding the permissible exposure limit
 Control Measures
Radiation Protection Programme
1. Risk assessment on new equipment

2. Reduction of optimum exposure:

 Time, distance, shielding – isolation, guarding,
engineering controls

3. Monitoring of rates of radiation dose

4. Written Standard Operating Procedures

 Control Measures
5. Training for X-ray technician, radiation protection
officer

6. Maintenance and observation

7. Radiation safety audit

8. Emergency plan

9. Risk communication
 Control Measures
 Exposure Monitoring
- Individual (example: film badge)
- Workplace (example: ionizing chamber)

 Health Monitoring
1. History (medical, occupational)
2. Clinical assessment
3. Medical transfer protection
 Code
Film

b.)

Figure 1. Proper
Filters orientation of the film
(Cu and inside the cassette: a.)
Al) when the film is placed
inside the cassette, the
label should be facing the
a.)
filters., b.) the code
should be visible thru the
window of the cassette.
3.0 MECHANICAL Hazard
Definition

 Mechanical hazards are those associated

with power driven machine weather
automated or manually operated machines
driven by hydraulic or electrical power.
 a harmful or danger posing situation that
involves machines mostly in a working
environment
 these hazards are common in work
industries like, mining, manufacturing,
agriculture and construction.
Occupational at Risk

 Workers that work in mining, manufacturing, agriculture

and construction where the usage of machines were
high.
MECHANICAL INJURIES

The types of injuries results are

 cutting , tearing , shearing , crushing , breaking ,
straining or puncturing .
PREVENTION OF MACHANICAL
HAZARDS
 IT can be reduced by the application of appropriate
safeguards
 Safeguarding is to minimize the risk of accidents of
machine- operator contact

 TYPES OF SAFEGUARDING
1. Point of operation guards
2. Feeding/ ejection method
Training

 Safety training (well designed,

consistently implemented,
documented, refresher courses as
necessary)
 Procedural controls, such as:
 Lock out/ tag out
 Limiting hours (no working at 2 am)
 Buddy system
Examples of Personal Protective
Equipment

 Safety glasses
 Gloves
 Hard hats
 Steel-toed boots
 Lab coats
 Safety harnesses for fall protection
 Ear plugs
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

 All the operator should be trained in the safe

operation and maintenance of their machine.
 All machine operators should be trained in
the emergency procedures to take when
accident occur.
 All employee should know how to activate
emergency shut down controls.
 Inspection, maintenance, adjustment, repair
and calibration of safe guards should be
carried out regularly.
4.0 EXTREME
TEMPERATURE Hazard
Introduction

 Excessive heat or cold causes lack of productivity,

physical damage or even death.
 The effects of heat are exaggerated by humidity
whereby the body cannot cool itself by sweating
 The effects of cold are exaggerated by wind chill
whereby the wind steals heat away from the body.
Exposure

Heat – Direct & indirect effect of high temperature, radiant

heat, heat stagnation.
Cold – General & local cold injury
HEAT STRESS
 Specific Characteristics
 Body temperature
 Variation of body temperature : 0.5-1.0 °C
 Normal human body temperature = 37.2 °C
 Heat stress: The retention of heat in the body is
greater than the body’s capacity to release it
 Health Effects
 Risk determining factors:
 worker characteristics
 Job task
 environment
Health Risk

Heat – Heat stroke, Heat hyperpyrexia, Heat

syncope, Heat Exhaustion, Heat rash.
Cold – Hypothermia, Frost bite, Trench foot.
Risk Factor: Environment & Job Task
 Risk Factor: Worker Characteristics

 Age
 Gender
 Obesity
 Medicine consumption
 Existing disease/illness
 Food/diet
 Related Legislation

OSHA 1994 (general)

 Objective 3: To promote a work environment that is
suitable to the worker’s physical and psychological
needs
 Occupation At Risk
 Metal factory
 Metal melting process
 Boiler
 Construction
 Army
 Professional athlete
 Physiological Effects of Heat
 Central nervous system
 Muscle activities and work capacity
 Control of blood flow
 Sweating mechanisms
 Changes in the balance electrolytes in the body
 Endocrine change
 Health Effects
 Skin irritation
 Muscle cramps
 Painful muscle cramps, especially the lower body
 Excessive fatigue
 fatigue, dizziness, faint, blurriness of sight,
excessive sweating
 Heat stroke
 organ damage (brain, liver, muscle, homoeopathic
system), hyperthermia (>41°C), confusion, coma,
dehydration, shock and death
 Complications
1. Cramps
2. Excessive fatigue
3. Heat stroke
 Control Measures
 Policy and Safe Operating Procedures (SOP)
 Engineering controls
 Ventilation, guarding, isolation
 Personal protective clothing and equipment
 Training and education
- Heat stress hazard
- Signs and symptoms
- First aid procedures
- Effects of medication
- Worker responsibility
 Control Measures
Safe work practices
 Reduced exposure
 Limit exposure and work duration
 Sufficient rest, hydration and cooling time
 Scheduling of work during cooler temperatures
 Reduce physical activities
 Acclimatisation programme
 Implement buddy system
 Sufficient supply of cold water (10 – 15oC)
 Drink 150 – 200 ml / 15 – 20 minutes
Control Measure

 HEAT: Ways to prevent damage by heat:

 cool the body
 fans or open doors, windows allowing a breeze to
cool the body.
 Shade
 Cold fluid, cold drinks
 COLD: Ways to prevent damage by cold:
 heat the body
 wear warm clothing, especially the torso and head
 Stop work when extreme temperatures encountered
 Health Surveillance
 Exposure monitoring
 Example: Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)
 Work according to the permissible exposure limits
 Health monitoring
 Identify risk groups – obesity
 History – occupational, medical such as skin disease,
medication, dehydration, heat stroke, obesity
 Clinical assessment
 Medical removal
 Recordkeeping
5.0 VIBRATION Hazard
 Definition
 Vibration - refers to the movement of solid objects
where amplitude and frequency produced causes
harm to those exposed to it.

 Human organs have their own frequencies. When

the human body comes into contact with vibration,
and the frequency of the vibration is similar to the
frequency for an organ, the organ will also vibrate.
 Specific Characteristics
Types of vibration

1. Whole-body vibration (WBV)

 Vibration is usually transferred to the body via the
buttocks or the feet

2. Hand-arm vibration (HAV)

 Vibration is transferred through the hand via the
use of vibrating hand tools
 Specific Characteristics
 Risk factors: force of grip, force of push, duration
and frequency of use, posture and temperature
 Occupation At Risk
 Whole-body vibration
- Ship workers, drivers – lorries, buses, tractors

 Hand-arm vibration
- Workers who use vibrating equipments such as grinder, electric
saw, drills.
 Types of Vibration

Whole-body vibration-WBV Hand-arm vibration - HAV

 Related Legislation
OSHA 1994 (General)

 Objective 3: to promote a working environment that

is conducive and suitable to the worker’s
psychological and physiological needs
 Health Effects
 Whole-body vibration
 Eye strain
 Nausea, vomiting, headache, backaches
 May cause lung damage and heart failure
 Hand-arm Vibration
 Damages the
peripheral blood flow,
periphery nerves and
musculoskeletal
system
 Hand-Arm Vibration
Syndrome: paleness
of fingers; aches and
pain in hands
 Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome
 Control Measures
 Conduct Risk Assessment before purchasing
vibrating equipments
 Hazard elimination: automatic equipment, or use
of robot technology
 Hazard substitution: less-vibrating or anti-vibration
equipment.
 Reduce exposure to vibration
 Reduce duration of time of works involving
vibration
 Regular maintenance of equipments
 Training, information and working instructions
 Health Surveillance
 Exposure monitoring
 Measurement of vibration magnitude
 example: accelerometer
 Health surveillance
1. History (medical, occupational , exposure,
vibration)
2. Grading of symptoms of vascular and sensory
neural effects
3. Objective assessment
- Example: cold provocation test, grips
strength test
6.0 PRESSURE Hazard
 Introduction
 Ocean and high places are unsuitable environments
for humans
 Many medical problems are related to diving and
climbing activities, due to pressure
 At sea level : pressure = 1 atm
 Every 10 meter depth : pressure increase of 1 atm
 At 20 meter depth : pressure = 3 atm
 At high levels, increase in pressure is not in ratio
to height
 The higher the level : the lower the pressure
 6000 m
0.5 ATM
 Related Legislation
OSHA 1994 (general)

 Objective 1: To ensure the safety, health and welfare

of people at work towards risks to safety and health
resulting from the activities of people at work
 Occupations at Risk
 Divers
- Navy
- Scuba divers - recreational
- Underwater loggers
- Pearl divers
 Mountain climbers
 Pilots
Occupations at Risk
 Health Effects
 Barotrauma
Destruction of organ tissues that contain air as
a result of pressure changes (example: middle
ear, sinus, lungs)

 Decompression sickness
Formation of bubble in the blood and tissues
while in a low pressure environment
 Health Effects
Symptoms
 Ear – pain, bleeding
 Breathing difficulty
 Choking sensation
 Dizziness, drowsiness
 Confusion and reduced brain ability
 Body pains, weakness of muscles, numbness
 Skin redness and irritation
 Coma
 Personality change
 Control Measures
 Training, information and instruction
 Safety training (including understanding the disease
process)
 Standard procedures
 Safe practices
 Equipment
 Health assessment
 Equipment
 Proper method of use
 Maintenance
 Health Surveillance
 Worker selection (example: diver)
 Pre-employment medical surveillance
 Regular medical assessment
 Annual assessment
 Record keeping of injuries/disease
 Clinical assessment
1. Fitness test
2. Audiometric test
3. Lung function test
4. Neurobehavioral test
7.0 NOISE Hazard
 Definition
 Any unwanted sound.

- “Unwanted” as it may cause physical injury to

the body, disturbance or annoyance.
  Specific Characteristics
Sound
 Sound is created due to changes of pressure
(either as a result of air turbulences or
mechanical vibration) in the air, water and
specific medium (solid, liquid or gas) that is
detectable by the human ear.
 Sound requires matter in which to travel, and it
cannot pass through a vacuum
  Specific Characteristics
 Due to the oscillatory character of the vibrating
source, the transfer of the vibrating energy is
not linear but occurs in pulses as a wave form,
i.e. sound waves.
  Specific Characteristics
Components of sound
 Frequency
 Pitch (degree of highness or lowness of sound
heard)
 Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second

 Amplitude (or loudness of sound)

 Energy of sound waves expressed in Decibel (dB)
 Sound Level & Their Sources
Sound level (dBA) Source of sound

140 Rocket launch

130 Pneumonic cutter
120 Electric saw (from 1m)
110 Field tractor
100 Shout (from 1.5m)
90 Train signal (from 150m)
80 Vacuum cleaner
60 Normal sound of male voice (from 1m)
50 Photocopy machine (from 2m)
30 Air conditioner in and auditorium
0 Sound threshold level
  Related Legislations
Factories and Machinery (Noise Exposure) Regulations 1989

Salient points
 Permissible exposure limits
 Noise exposure monitoring
 Methods of compliance such as engineering,
administrative controls etc.
 Audiometric testing
 Hearing protection equipments
 Information, instructions and training
 Recordkeeping by the employer
  Related Legislations
Permissible Exposure Limits

 Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL)

a. Continuous noise
- for 8 hours: 90dB (A)
- ceiling limit : 115 dB (A)

b. Impulse noise
- ceiling limit : 140 dB (A)
  Occupations at Risk
 Quarrying activities
 Mining activities
 Textile industry
 Construction activities
 Carpentry activities
 Car manufacturing etc.
  Health Effects
 Emotional disturbances and sensitive
 Communication problems
 Loss of hearing and hearing related injuries
 Tinnitus
 Psychological disturbances
 High blood pressure
  Health Effects
Hearing loss
1. Conduction type
 Rupture of ear drum
 Restrictive Movement of ossicles (hammer) bones
due to disease in the middle ear
2. Sensory-neural
 Damage to hair cells in the inner ear
 Effects both ears
 Hearing loss at high frequencies
 Hearing loss is permanent.
  Control Measures
 Hierarchy of control strategies

(Noise) (Worker)
Path
Source Receiver

MOST Least
EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE
  Control Measures
 Control at Source

1. Plant planning (design & layout)

 Stiff and heavy foundations for heavy
equipment.
 Office areas separated from vibrating
equipment.

2. Substitution (equipment, process, material)

 Use of quieter equipment based on specification
(noise performance data).
  Control Measures
 Use
of quieter processes
Replace chipping with grinding
Replace rolling or forging with pressing.
Replace mechanical power with hydraulic
power.

 Use
of quieter material
Replace of steel gears with fibre gears
Replace steel wheels with rubber tyres.
  Control Measures
3. Engineering Control
– Modification of noise generator & effective
planned maintenance.
  Control Measures
 Control at Path
– Partial or full enclosure around the machine
– Use of sound-absorptive material( fibre-glass,
acoustic tiles)
– Use of acoustical barrier to shield, deflect or
absorb noise energy.( Brick, concrete)
– Add mufflers/silencers
  Control Measures
 Control at Receiver
Use enclosure or control room to house
employee.
Reduce the amount of time employees are
allowed to work in high noise areas.
Provide training on its proper use &
maintenance.
  Health Monitoring
 Exposure monitoring for Employees who work in high-noise
areas
- conducted by a competent person

 Health assessment
- History of previous occupations, hobbies and
medical history
- Ear check
- Audiometric test
 Audiometric Equipment
Audiometric booth

audiometer

printer
  Health Monitoring
Audiometric Test Requirements:

 Once a year:
(1) Noise exposure is at level or above the PEL
(2) Basic audiometric test shows hearing injury
(3) Annual audiometric test – standard threshold shift
  Health Monitoring
Audiometric Test Requirements:

 Once every two years

(1) Exposure : 85 - 90 dB (A)

 Pre-test Preparation
1. Not exposed to high noise for last 14 hours
2. Do not have severe cold or an ear infection
 References
1. Occupational Safety and Health for Technologies, Engineers
and Managers
2. Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, Barbara A.Hog
3. Industrial Hygiene, Robert W.Allen