THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
The Respiratory
System
• All living organisms need energy
to carry out life processes in order
to survive.
• They obtain this energy from food
when the food is respired.
Humans respire aerobically and
their respiratory system is
responsible for taking in the
oxygen they need to sustain this
respiration and to constantly get
rid of the carbon dioxide they
produce.
Breathing and gaseous
exchange
• Breathing refers to the movements that cause air
to be moved into and out of the lungs. Breathing
must not be confused with respiration, which is
the process by which energy is released from
food by all living cells
• Gaseous exchange is the process by which
oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood through a
gaseous exchange surface
• Humans respire aerobically, meaning that
they release energy from food using oxygen.
• Aerobic respiration produces carbon dioxide
as a waste product.
• Breathing and gaseous exchange are
essential because:
a. They ensure that humans have a
continual supply of oxygen to meet the
demands of aerobic respiration.
b. They ensure that the carbon dioxide
produced in aerobic respiration is
continually removed so that it does not
build up and poison cells.
 Gaseous exchange surfaces
• In many animals, including humans, the surface through which gases are
exchanged, known as the gaseous exchange surface, forms part of the
respiratory system.
• These surfaces have several adaptations which make the exchange of
gases through them as efficient as possible:
a. They have a large surface area so that large quantities of gases can
be exchanged.
b. They are very thin so gases can diffuse through them rapidly.
c. They have a rich blood supply to quickly transport gases between
the surface and the body cells.
d. They are moist so that gases can dissolve before they diffuse through
the surface.
Structure of the
Human Respiratory
System

• In humans, the gaseous exchange surface is

found in the lungs which make up part of the
respiratory system.
• Humans have two lungs composed of thousands
of air passages called bronchioles and millions of
swollen air sacs called alveoli. Each lung is
surrounded by two pleural membranes which
have pleural fluid between them.
• A single bronchus leads into each lung from the
trachea. The larynx forms the top part of the
trachea and the nasal cavities and the mouth
lead into the pharynx or throat, which leads into
the larynx.
Structure of the human thorax

• Each lung receives blood from the heart

via a pulmonary artery and blood is
carried back to the heart via a
pulmonary vein.
• The two lungs are surrounded by the
ribs which form the chest cavity or
thorax.
• The ribs have intercostal muscles
between and a dome-shaped sheet of
muscle,the diaphragm, stretches across
the floor of the thorax.
Surface view of a cluster
of alveoli showing the
blood supply
 Summary of the functions of the main
parts of the respiratory system
STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Nasal Cavity Warm the inhaled air. Mucus traps dust and pathogens in the inhaled air and moistens the air. Cilia
move the mucus to the throat to be swallowed.
Epiglotis Prevents food from entering the trachea when swallowing.
Larnyx Vocal cords produce the sounds of speech.

Trachea Carry air into and out of the lungs. Rings of cartilage in their walls keep them open

Bronchioles Carry air to and from the alveoli.

Alveoli Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between inhaled air and blood in the
capillaries.
Pleural membranes Form an airtight cavity between the lungs and the rib-cage and diaphragm so that any changes in
and pleural fluid volume of the chest cavity causes the volume inside the lungs to change. Pleural fl uid also acts as a
lubricant during breathing.
Intercostal muscles Contract and relax to change the volume inside the chest cavity and lungs, which causes air to
and diaphragm move into and out of the lungs
 The mechanism of breathing and gaseous
exchange
Features Inhalation Exhalation

1 External intercostal muscles Contract Relax

Internal intercostal muscles Relax Contract

Ribs and sternum Move upwards and outwards Move downwards and
inwards
2 Diaphragm muscles Contract Relax

Diaphragm Move downwards on flattens Domes upward

3 Volume inside the thorax and lungs Increases Decreases

Pressure inside thorax and lungs Decreases Increases

4 Movement of air Air is drawn into the lungs due to the Air is pushed out of the lungs
increase in pressure due to increase in pressure
The walls of the alveoli
form the gaseous
exchange surface. Each
alveolus:
• Has a pocket shape. A human
has two lungs, each containing
over 350 million alveoli, giving a
very large total surface area of
about 90 m2.
• Has a very thin wall that is only
one cell thick.
• Is surrounded by a network of
capillaries giving it a rich blood
supply.
• Is lined with moisture.
Factors affecting the breathing rate
• The normal breathing rate for a healthy adult at rest ranges from 12
to 16 breaths per minute.
• The medulla of the brain (see page 69) controls the breathing rate by
detecting the level of carbon dioxide in the blood and sending
impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
• Any factor that increases the rate of respiration in body cells will
cause the level of carbon dioxide in the blood to increase. If carbon
dioxide levels increase, breathing rate increases to remove the excess
carbon dioxide.
Factors that increase breathing rate
include:
• Carrying out exercise.
• Taking drugs that are stimulants, e.g. caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine.
• Smoking cigarettes.
• Suffering from anxiety or fear.
• Being exposed to certain environmental factors, e.g. being in a confi ned space or in polluted air.
• Being at high altitude.
• Being overweight.
• • Any factor that decreases the rate of respiration in body cells will cause the level of carbon dioxide
• in the blood to decrease. If carbon dioxide levels decrease, breathing rate decreases. Factors that
• decrease breathing rate include:
• When resting or asleep.
• Taking drugs that are depressants, e.g. sedatives, sleeping pills, alcohol.
• Being exposed to certain environmental factors, e.g. being in fresh, unpolluted air.
Vital Capacity

• Vital capacity is the maximum volume of

air that can be exhaled from the lungs
after inhaling as deeply as possible.
• Measuring vital capacity can be used to
indicate lung function and if a person is
suffering from lung disease.
• Vital capacity depends on age, gender,
body size and fitness.
• It can be increased by regular exercise
and is decreased by smoking, obesity or
respiratory disease. Other volumes and
capacities associated with the lungs
 • Cigarette smoking poses serious health risks
including the following.
1. Nicotine addiction
Nicotine is an addictive substance that causes
smokers to continue to smoke and makes it
extremely diffi cult for them to stop. Addicted
smokers need enough nicotine during each day
to ‘feel normal’.

2. Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the

blood
Carbon monoxide combines more readily with
haemoglobin than oxygen does, which reduces
the amount of oxygen carried to body cells. This
reduces respiration and the smoker’s ability to
exercise.
The effects of smoking In a pregnant woman it deprives the foetus of
cigarettes oxygen, reducing its growth and development.
3. Lung damage
Cigarette smoke damages lungs:
• It causes mucus production to increase and it paralyses the cilia, which stops them from beating so the mucus is not removed. The
person then develops a persistent cough to try and remove the mucus.
• It irritates and inflames the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles. This, together with the increased mucus production and paralysis of
the cilia, causes the airways to become obstructed, making breathing difficult, and leads to chronic bronchitis.
 Cancer of the
mouth, throat,
oesophagus or lungs
• Some components of tar and many
other chemicals in cigarette smoke are
carcinogenic. These cause mutations in
cells in different regions of the
respiratory system.
• This leads to the development of
cancerous tumours which replace
normal, healthy tissue in these regions.
• Note that chronic bronchitis and
emphysema are two types of chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD.
• chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD): an incurable disease of the
lungs that makes breathing difficult.
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (rescue breathing)

• Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is
a technique used to supply
oxygen to a person who has
stopped breathing. The rescuer
forces his or her exhaled air,
which contains about 16%
oxygen, into the victim’s lungs
every few seconds, allowing for
passive exhalation between.
To perform mouth-tomouth
resuscitation:

1. Lie the victim on his or her back.

2. Gently tilt the victim’s head backwards to
open the airways by lifting the chin.
3. Open the victim’s mouth and remove any
debris.
4. Pinch the victim’s nostrils to close them
and breathe in.
5. Seal your lips over the victim’s open
mouth and breathe out into the mouth
for 1 second.
6. If the victim’s chest rises, breathe into
the mouth a second time.
7. Continue rescue breathing by giving one
breath every 5 seconds until normal
breathing resumes or medical help
arrives.
 Respiration
• Respiration is the process by which energy is released from food by all living cells.
• Respiration is catalysed by enzymes and occurs slowly in a large number of stages:
Most of the energy released at each stage is used to build energy-carrying molecules called adenosine triphosphate or ATP. An
ATP molecule is formed by combining some of the energy released with an adenosine diphosphate or ADP molecule and a
phosphate group present in the cell.
The energy can then be re-released wherever it is needed in the cell by the reverse reaction:
• ADP + phosphate + energy <-ATP
• ATP is known as the ‘energy currency’ of cells. Cells earn ATP as a result of energy-producing
• reactions and spend it on reactions requiring energy.
• The energy released by ATP is used by cells:
• To manufacture complex, biologically important molecules, e.g. proteins, DNA.
• For cell growth and repair.
• For cell division.
• In active transport to move molecules and ions in and out of the cells through their membranes.
• For special functions in specialized cells, e.g. contraction of muscle cells, and transmission of impulses in nerve cells.
• Some of the energy is released as heat and this helps to maintain the body temperature at 37 °C.
ATP
• ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is an
essential molecule that plays a crucial
role in the functioning of all living
organisms.
• It serves as the main form of energy
currency in cells, powering countless
biological processes.
• Understanding ATP is fundamental
to comprehending how life sustains
itself and thrives.
• There are two types of respiration:
• • aerobic respiration
• • anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration

• Aerobic respiration is the process by which energy

is released from food by living cells using oxygen.
• Aerobic respiration occurs in most cells. It uses
oxygen and takes place in the mitochondria. It
always
• produces carbon dioxide, water and about 38 ATP
molecules per molecule of glucose.
Anaerobic respiration

• Anaerobic respiration is the process by

which energy is released from food by
living cells without the use of oxygen.
• Anaerobic respiration occurs in some
cells. It takes place without oxygen in
the cytoplasm of the cells.
• The products of anaerobic respiration
vary and it produces considerably less
energy per molecule of glucose than
aerobic respiration. Yeast cells, certain
bacteria and muscle cells are capable
of carrying out anaerobic respiration.
Industrial and domestic
uses of anaerobic
respiration

• Making bread and

alcoholic beverages
• Making yogurt
• Producing bio gas
Making Bread and Alcoholic Beverages

• Yeast cells carry out anaerobic respiration known as fermentation. It

produces ethanol, carbon dioxide and 2 ATP molecules per molecule
of glucose.
enzymes in
Glucose ----------------------glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy
cytoplasm

• When making bread, the yeast ferments sugars present in dough.

• The carbon dioxide produced forms bubbles in the dough which
cause it to rise.
• When baked, heat from the oven causes the bubbles to expand, kills
the yeast and evaporates the ethanol.
• When making alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, rum and other
spirits, the yeast ferments sugars present in grains, fruits or molasses.
• Fermentation stops when the ethanol concentration reaches about
14–16% because it kills yeast cells, so the ethanol content of beer and
wine is always below about 16%.
• Spirits are made by distillation of the fermentation mixture.
Making yogurt

• Certain bacteria, e.g. Lactobacillus, ferment the lactose in

milk forming lactic acid.
• The lactic acid makes the milk proteins curdle, which
forms thick yoghurt and gives the yoghurt its sour taste.
 Producing Biogas

• Certain bacteria are used to break

down organic matter, e.g. manure
and garden waste, anaerobically in
an anaerobic digester. This produces
biogas which is a mixture of
approximately 60% methane (CH4),
• 40% carbon dioxide and traces of
other gases, e.g. hydrogen sulfide
(H2S). Biogas can be used as a fuel
for cooking, heating and to generate
electricity.
Oxygen Debt
• Muscle cells can carry out anaerobic respiration
during strenuous exercise.
• During strenuous exercise, if oxygen cannot be
delivered to the muscle cells quickly enough for the
demands of aerobic respiration, the cells begin to
respire anaerobically.
• This produces lactic acid and 2 ATP molecules per
molecule of glucose.
AEROBIC VS ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by the term breathing and why is breathing important
to humans?
1. What is meant by the term breathing and why is breathing important to humans?

Breathing refers to the process of taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide from the
body.
It includes inhalation: In this phase the diaphragm contracts and the chest cavity expands
allowing air to be drawn into the lungs. Oxygen from the air is then transferred to the blood.
Exhalation: In this phase the diaphragm relaxes and the chest cavity decreases in size pushing
the air out in carbon dioxide from the lungs.

Breathing is important to humans because:

2. Oxygen supply: Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration, the process by which cells
generate energy. Without a continuous supply of oxygen, cells would not function
optimally, and vital organs could fail.
3. Removal of carbon dioxide: Cells produce co2 as a byproduct of energy production.
Breathing allows the body to expel waste gas which is harmful if not removed.
4. Energy Production: oxygen is a key component in the process of aerobic respiration, the
most efficient way our cells generate energy.
• State the function of each of the following structures found in the
respiratory system:

a. The nasal cavities

b. The bronchi
c. The bronchioles
• State the function of each of the following structures found in the respiratory system:

a. The nasal cavities:

1. The nasal cavity serves several important functions in the respiratory system. It acts as the main entrance for
air into the respiratory system. The nasal cavity:Warms and humidifies incoming air.
2. Filters out dust and other particles from the air.
3. Contains mucous membranes that produce mucus to trap and eliminate airborne pathogens.

b. The bronchi
4. The bronchi are large air passages in the respiratory system that connect the trachea to the lungs. The main
functions of the bronchi include:Conducting air from the trachea to the lungs and vice versa.
5. Providing a pathway for the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the lungs.
6. Acting as a primary route for air to enter and leave the respiratory system.

c. The bronchioles
7. Bronchioles are smaller air passages that branch off from the bronchi within the lungs. Their functions
include:Regulating airflow and directing air to specific regions of the lungs.
8. Assisting in the distribution of air to the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs.
9. Contributing to the control of airflow resistance within the respiratory system.
• Identify the gaseous exchange surface in a human and explain four
ways in which the surface is adapted to perform its function
efficiently.
• Identify the gaseous exchange surface in a human and explain four ways in which the surface is adapted to
perform its function efficiently.

The gaseous exchange surface in humans is primarily the alveoli, which are tiny air sacs located at the ends of
the bronchioles within the lungs.
• Adaptations of Alveoli for Efficient Gaseous Exchange:
1. Large Surface Area:
Adaptation: Alveoli provide a large surface area for gas exchange. The numerous alveoli collectively create a vast area for
oxygen to diffuse into the bloodstream and for carbon dioxide to move out of the blood. This large surface area enhances
the efficiency of gas exchange.
2. Thin Walls:
Adaptation: The walls of the alveoli are incredibly thin, allowing for rapid diffusion of gases. This thinness reduces the
barrier that oxygen and carbon dioxide must cross, promoting quick and efficient exchange. The thin walls are composed
of a single layer of flattened epithelial cells.
3. Moist Environment:
Adaptation: The inner surface of the alveoli is coated with a thin layer of moisture. This moisture helps dissolve gases,
facilitating their movement across the respiratory membrane. It also prevents the walls from sticking together, maintaining
the surface area for efficient gas exchange.
4. Rich Blood Supply:
Adaptation: Alveoli are surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries. This rich blood supply ensures a constant flow
of deoxygenated blood to the alveoli and the removal of oxygenated blood. The close proximity of capillaries to alveoli
maximizes the efficiency of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
• What is ATP and what is its role in body cells?
• What is ATP and what is its role in body cells?

• ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is a molecule that serves as the primary energy currency in living cells. It plays a
crucial role in various cellular processes and is often referred to as the "energy currency of the cell.“

• Role of ATP in Body Cells:

1. Energy Storage and Transfer:
1. ATP stores and carries energy within cells. When cells require energy for various processes, such as muscle contraction, active
transport of molecules across cell membranes, or synthesis of biomolecules, ATP can undergo hydrolysis, releasing energy by
breaking the bond between the last two phosphate groups. This energy can then be used to power cellular activities.
2. Cellular Work:
1. ATP provides the energy needed for cellular work. The energy released during the breakdown of ATP powers mechanical work
(e.g., muscle contraction), chemical work (e.g., synthesis of molecules), and transport work (e.g., pumping ions across cell
membranes).
3. Metabolism and Enzyme Activation:
1. Many metabolic pathways in the cell are driven by ATP. Enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions, often
require ATP to become activated. ATP provides the necessary energy for these enzymes to carry out their functions.
4. Synthesis of Biomolecules:
1. ATP is involved in the synthesis of various biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The energy released during
ATP hydrolysis is used to drive the synthesis of these complex molecules, contributing to the growth and maintenance of cells.
5. Cell Signaling:
1. ATP also plays a role in cell signaling. Extracellular ATP can act as a signaling molecule, participating in cell-to-cell
communication. It binds to specific receptors on the cell membrane, initiating various signaling cascades that affect cellular
responses.
• Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration and write one
word equation to summarise each process.
• Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration and write one
word equation to summarise each process.
a. Name the 3 components of cigarette smoke
b. Outline how smoking cigarettes damages the lungs.
a. Name the 3 components of cigarette smoke
b. Outline how smoking cigarettes damages the lungs.