Introduction to Electronics

Digital Electronics
Module 4

Ref: Digital Design By Morris Mano and Michael D

cilleti
 UNIT 4

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Binary Number System
The binary number system is a base-2 numbering
system that uses only two digits, 0 and 1, to represent
numbers. It is the foundation of all digital systems and
is commonly used in computers, digital electronics,
and other areas of technology. Here's how binary
numbers work, how to convert them to and from
decimal (base-10), and some basic binary operations.
Binary Number System Conversion and
representation
1. Binary Representation: In the binary number
system, each digit represents a power of 2. The
rightmost digit is the least significant bit (LSB), and the
leftmost digit is the most significant bit (MSB).

Binary numbers can be manipulated using operations

like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
which are similar to their decimal counterparts. For
example, to add two binary numbers, align them by their
positions (similar to carrying over in decimal addition)
and add digit by digit, considering any carryovers.
 Logic Levels High and Low
 In digital electronics, logic levels refer to the two distinct voltage
levels used to represent binary information (0 and 1) in digital
circuits. These levels are typically denoted as "logic level high" and
"logic level low."
 Logic Level High (1):
Logic level high is associated with the binary digit "1."
It represents the "on" state or a true condition in digital systems.
Typically, a voltage near the supply voltage (Vcc) is used to indicate a
logic level high. In most cases, it's close to the maximum voltage the
system can handle.
The actual voltage used for a logic level high depends on the specific
technology and voltage standards being used. Common voltage levels
for logic high include 3.3 volts (for TTL logic) or 5 volts (for older
TTL and some CMOS logic).
 Logic Level
 Logic Level Low (0):
 Logic level low is associated with the binary digit "0."
 It represents the "off" state or a false condition in digital systems.
 Typically, a voltage near zero volts or ground (0V) is used to indicate a logic
level low.
 Like logic level high, the actual voltage for logic level low depends on the
technology. It's often very close to 0V for most digital systems.
 The distinction between logic level high and low is essential for digital
circuits to process and transmit information accurately. This binary
representation allows digital devices to communicate, perform logical
operations, and store data in a manner that is highly reliable and resistant to
noise and interference.
 Different digital logic families (e.g., TTL, CMOS, ECL) may have specific
voltage level standards for logic high and low, so it's important to know the
standards used in a particular system to ensure proper operation and
compatibility between different components.
 Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics and a formal
system used in computer science and logic for working
with binary variables and operations. It was developed
by George Boole in the mid-19th century and provides a
set of rules and principles for manipulating binary
values, typically represented as 0 and 1, using logical
operations. Boolean algebra is fundamental to digital
circuit design, computer programming, and many
aspects of computer science and information technology.


Example of Binary to Decimal Conversion:

Convert the binary number (1101) 2 into a decimal number.

Solution:
Given binary number = (1101)2
Now, multiplying each digit from MSB to LSB with
reducing the power of the base number 2.
1 × 23 + 1 × 2 2 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 2 0
=8+4+0+1
= 13
Thus, the equivalent decimal number for the given binary
number (1101)2 is (13)10
Convert the binary number 1001 to a decimal number.

Solution:

Given, binary number = 10012

Hence, using the binary to decimal conversion formula,
we have:
10012 = (1 × 2³) + (0 × 2²) + (0 × 2¹) + (1 × 2⁰)
=8+0+0+1
= (9)₁₀
Decimal to binary
Convert (100)decimal to binary
Boolean algebra laws and expression
Boolean expression
A logical statement that results in a Boolean value,
either be True or False, is a Boolean expression.
Sometimes, synonyms are used to express the
statement such as ‘Yes’ for ‘True’ and ‘No’ for ‘False’.
Also, 1 and 0 are used for digital circuits for True and
False, respectively.
Boolean expressions are the statements that use logical
operators, i.e., AND, OR, XOR and NOT. Thus, if we
write X AND Y = True, then it is a Boolean expression
DE MORGAN’S THEOREM

(A+B)’ = A’.B’

(A.B)’ = A’+B’
Logic Gates
There are 3 types of logic gates-
1) Basic Gates: OR, AND, and NOT Gates.

2) Universal Gates: NAND, and NOR Gates.

3) Derived Gates: XOR Gates, and XNOR Gates.

Let’s understand all three logic gates in depth.

 Digital Logic
Binary system -- 0 & 1, LOW & HIGH,
negated and
asserted.
Basic building blocks -- AND, OR, NOT
AND, OR, NOT Gates
 OR Gate:

A OR B = A + B ( Logical OR)
implies AdditioN
 AND GATE

A AND B = A.B (Logical Multiplication)

NOT GATE (inversion)
 EX –OR Gate

An exclusive OR gate (XOR gate) is a digital logic gate

that produces a high output when one of the inputs is
high. If both inputs are low or high, the output is low.
NAND Gate
NAND is an abbreviation for
“NOT AND.” A two-input NAND
gate is a digital combination logic
circuit that performs the logical
inverse of an AND gate.
While an AND gate outputs a
logical “1” only if both inputs are
logical “1,” a NAND gate outputs a
logical “0” for this same
combination of inputs. The symbol
and truth table for a NAND gate is
shown in Figure
NOR gate
 The NOR gate is a digital
logic gate that implements
NOR logical NOR - .
GATE
 A HIGH output (1) results
if both the inputs to the
gate are LOW (0);
 if one or both input is
HIGH (1), a LOW output
(0) results. NOR is the
result of the negation of
the OR operator.
 Basic gates using NAND gate

1. Implementation of AND Gate using Universal gates.

a) Using NAND Gates

The AND gate can be implemented by using two NAND gates in the below
fashion:
 Basic gates using NOR gate

b) Using NOR Gates

Implementation of AND gate using only NOR gates as
shown below:
Implementation of OR Gate using Universal gates.

a) Using NAND Gates

The OR gate can be implemented using the NAND gate
as
below:
Combinational and Sequential Logic circuit
The combinational circuit is time-independent.
 The output it generates does not depend on any of its
previous inputs.
On the other hand, sequential circuits are the ones that
depend on clock cycles.
They depend entirely on the past as well as the present
inputs for generating output.
What is a Combinational Circuit?

 The output of a Combinational Circuit depends entirely on the present

input.
 It exhibits a faster speed.
 It is comparatively easier to design.
 No feedback is present between the input and output.
 The combinational circuit depends on time.
 Logic gates form the building blocks of such circuits.
 One can make use of it for both boolean and arithmetic operations.
 They don’t hold the capacity of storing any state.
 These circuits do not have a clock- thus, they don’t require triggering.
 They do not possess any memory element.
 Users can feasibly use as well as handle them.
 Example – Demultiplexer, Multiplexer, Decoder, Encoder, etc.
Half Adder
Combinational logic circuit for half adder
Half adder has 2 i/p and 2o/p (sum and Carry)
Full adder
Full adder has 3 i/p and 2 o/p
What is a Sequential Circuit?

 The output of a Sequential Circuit depends on both- past as well as present

inputs.
 It works at a comparatively slower speed.
 The design of these circuits is comparatively much tougher than the
Combinational Circuit.
 A feedback path exists between the output and the input.
 The circuit is time-dependent.
 Flip-flops constitute the building blocks of such a circuit.
 People mainly use them for storing data and information.
 They possess the capability of storing any data state or retaining an earlier state
at any given point.
 Because a Sequential circuit depends on a clock, it usually requires triggering.
 They always possess a memory element.
 A user may not be able to handle and use these circuits easily.
 For Example – Counters, Flip-flops, etc.
S-R Latch using NAND /NOR Gate
When using static gates as building blocks, the most
fundamental latch is the simple SR latch, where S and
R stand for set and reset. It can be constructed from a
pair of cross-coupled NOR or NAND logic gates. The
stored bit is present on the output marked Q.
The circuit shown below is a basic NAND latch. The
inputs are generally
designated S and R for Set and Reset respectively.
Because the NAND inputs must normally be logic 1 to
avoid affecting the latching action, the inputs are
considered to be inverted in this circuit (or active low).
 What is the difference between an SR latch
using a NAND gate and a NOR gate?

 An SR latch (Set-Reset Latch) is a fundamental electronic circuit

used in digital electronics, and it can be implemented using either
NAND gates or NOR gates.
 The main difference between an SR latch using a NAND gate and a
NOR gate is in the way the two gates handle input signals. In an SR
latch using NAND gates, the circuit is designed such that both S
and R inputs are inverted and then fed into a two-input NAND gate.
Whereas in an SR latch using NOR gates, the circuit is designed
such that both S and R inputs are fed into a two-input NOR gate.
Here are the differences in the truth tables
and operation of both types of SR latch:
 SR Latch with NAND Gates:
 S = 0, R = 0: Q and Q̅ hold their previous states.
 S = 0, R = 1: Q = 0, Q̅ = 1 (reset condition).
 S = 1, R = 0: Q = 1, Q̅ = 0 (set condition).
 S = 1, R = 1: Undefined state.

 SR Latch with NOR Gates:

 S = 0, R = 0: Q and Q̅ hold their previous states.
 S = 0, R = 1: Q = 0, Q̅ = 1 (reset condition).
 S = 1, R = 0: Q = 1, Q̅ = 0 (set condition).
 S = 1, R = 1: Invalid condition (both outputs are at 0).
 SR Flip Flop

Flip flop is a term which comes under digital

 What is SR Flip Flop?
electronics, and it is an electronic component
 It is a Flip Flop with two inputs,
which is used to store one single bit of the
information. digital electronics, and it is an electronic co one is S and other is R. S here
stands for Set and R here stands for
Reset. Set basically indicates set
the flip flop which means output 1
and reset indicates resetting the flip
flop which means output 0. Here
clock pulse is supplied to operate
this flop flop, hence it is clocked
flip flop.
Truth table of S-R flip flop
J-K flip flop
 J-K flip flop
This simple JK flip Flop is the most widely used of all
the flip-flop designs and is considered to be a universal
flip-flop circuit. The two inputs labelled “J” and “K”
are not shortened abbreviated letters of other words,
such as “S” for Set and “R” for Reset, but are
themselves autonomous letters chosen by its inventor
Jack Kilby to distinguish the flip-flop design from
other types.
 J-K flip flop
The JK flip flop is basically a gated SR flip-flop with
the addition of a clock input circuitry that prevents the
illegal or invalid output condition that can occur when
both inputs S and R are equal to logic level “1”. Due to
this additional clocked input, a JK flip-flop has four
possible input combinations, “logic 1”, “logic 0”, “no
change” and “toggle”
 D-Flip Flop
D Flip-Flop (Data Flip-Flop): The D flip-flop, also
known as a Data or Delay flip-flop.
It has a data input (D) and a clock input (CLK).
It stores the value at the D input when the clock signal
transitions, effectively latching the data.
D flip flop circuit and Truth table
Applications of Flip flops
They are widely used in digital systems,
including microprocessors,
memory devices, and
various control systems.
Depending on the specific requirements of a digital
circuit,
different types of flip-flops can be chosen to
implement
the desired functionality.
Summary of flip flops
A flip-flop is a digital electronic circuit that can store
one bit of information, which can be either a 0 or a 1.

It is a fundamental building block in digital electronics

and is used to store and synchronize data in various
applications, such as memory units, registers, and
sequential logic circuits.

Flip-flops are crucial for creating sequential and

clocked digital circuits.
Types of Flip flop
SR Flip-Flop (Set-Reset Flip-Flop): An SR flip-flop has
two inputs, S (set) and R (reset), which can be used to set or
reset the output. It can be sensitive to the level of inputs or
the edges of a clock signal.
JK Flip-Flop: The JK flip-flop has three inputs: J (set), K
(reset), and a clock input. It has behavior similar to the SR
flip-flop but with additional functionality to toggle its output
state when J and K are both active.
D Flip-Flop (Data Flip-Flop): The D flip-flop, also known
as a Data or Delay flip-flop, has a data input (D) and a clock
input (CLK). It stores the value at the D input when the
clock signal transitions, effectively latching the data.
 4-bit binary counter and 4 stage shift
register

 A 4-bit binary counter is a digital circuit that counts in binary from

0000 to 1111 and then repeats the sequence. It's a common
component in digital electronics and can be used for various
applications, such as sequencing through states, generating timing
signals, and more.