Properties of Fluids

Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid mechanics:
“A physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in
motion, and with applications and devices
 Fluid Mechanics can be further subdivided into fluid statics, the
study of fluids at rest, and kinematics, the study of fluids in motion
and fluid dynamics, the study of effect of forces on fluid motion.
 Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to
engineering devices.
 Fluid
 A fluid is refers to:
“Substances that can flow and change shape when
subjected to external forces.”
 Fluids include both liquids and gases.
 Unlike solids, which maintain their shape and
volume under applied forces, fluids are characterized
by their ability to deform continuously under the
influence of even small forces.
 Distinction between a Solid and a Fluid

Solid Fluid
 Definite Shape and definite  Indefinite Shape and Indefinite
volume. volume & it assumes the shape
 Does not flow easily. of the container which it
occupies.
 Molecules are closer.  Flow Easily.
 Attractive forces between the
molecules are large enough to
 Molecules are far apart.
retain its shape.  Attractive forces between the
 An ideal Elastic Solid deform molecules are smaller.
under load and comes back to  Intermolecular cohesive forces
original position upon removal of in a fluid are not great enough to
load. hold the various elements of
 Plastic Solid does not comes back fluid together. Hence Fluid will
to original position upon removal flow under the action of applied
of load, means permanent stress. The flow will be
deformation takes place. continuous as long as stress is
applied.
 Distinction between a Gas and Liquid

 The molecules of a gas are  A liquid is relatively

much farther apart than incompressible.
those of a liquid.  If all pressure, except that
 Hence a gas is very of its own vapor pressure,
compressible, and when is removed, the cohesion
all external pressure is between molecules holds
removed, it tends to expand them together, so that the
indefinitely. liquid does not expand
 A gas is therefore in indefinitely.
equilibrium only when it is  Therefore a liquid may
completely enclosed. have a free surface.
 TYPES OF FLUID

IDEAL FLUIDS REAL FLUIDS

 Also known as inviscid fluids  Actual fluids found in the real
Hypothetical fluids that lack world, with properties like
viscosity and other real-world viscosity, compressibility, and
properties surface
Non-uniform velocity distribution
Incompressible

Have
when flowing
uniform velocity when Compressible
flowing
Experience friction and turbulence
No friction between moving layers
of fluid in flow
Used to model practical scenarios
No eddy currents or turbulence
Real fluids are further divided into
Used in formulating fundamental
principles and equations in fluid Newtonian and non-Newtonian
dynamics, such as Bernoulli's fluids based on how their viscosity
equation, which relates the changes with shear rate (rate of
pressure, velocity, and elevation of deformation).
a fluid along a streamline.
Distinction between Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

 Characterized by a constant  Do not have a constant
viscosity regardless of the viscosity. Their viscosity can
applied shear rate or shear stress. change significantly with
The viscosity of Newtonian changes in shear rate or shear
fluids remains consistent at stress.
different flow rates, making their The viscosity of non-
behavior predictable and simpler Newtonian fluids may increase
to analyze. (shear-thickening) or decrease
Common examples of (shear-thinning) with increasing
Newtonian fluids include water, shear rate.
air, and most gases. This behavior can be
influenced by factors such as
temperature, pressure, and
concentration of suspended
particles or polymers.
Common examples of Non-
Newtonian fluids include
ketchup, blood, paints, gels.
SI Units
FPS Units
 Important Terms
 Density ():
 Density is a physical property that measures how much
mass is contained within a given volume of a substance.
 It quantifies how tightly packed the particles or molecules
of a material are within that volume.
m
Mass per unit volume of a substance. 
V
 kg/m3 in SI units
where:
 Slug/ft3 in FPS system of units
ρ is the density of the
substance.
• Slug = lb.sec2/ ft m is the mass of the
substance.
V is the volume occupied by
the substance.
Important Terms
Important Terms
 Important Terms
 Approximate Room Temperature Densities of
Common Fluids

Fluid ρ in kg/m3
Air (STP) 1.29
Air (21 °F, 1 atm) 1.20
Alcohol 790
Ammonia 602
Gasoline 720
Glycerin 1,260
Mercury 13,600
Water 1,000
 Important Terms
 Specific weight ():
 Also known as unit weight, is a measure of the weight
(force due to gravity) of a substance per unit volume.
 specific weight is a property that helps describe the
density and weight distribution of a substance.
w
Weight per unit volume of substance. 
 N/m3 in SI units V
 lbs/ft3 in FPS units where:
γ is the specific weight of the
substance.
W is the weight of the substance
(force due to gravity acting on its
mass).
V is the volume occupied by the
substance.
 Important Terms

 Density and Specific Weight of a fluid are related as:

  g
 Where g is the gravitational constant having value 9.81 m/s 2
or 32.2 ft/s2.
 Important Terms
 Specific Volume (v):
 A property used in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics to
describe the volume occupied by a unit mass of a
substance.
 It is the reciprocal of density and provides information
about how much space a given amount of substance
occupies.
Volume occupied by unit mass of fluid. where:
vs is the specific volume of the
SpecificVo lume  vs 1 /  substance.
V is the volume occupied by the
substance.
m is the mass of the substance.

 It is commonly applied to gases and is usually expressed in

cubic feet per slug (m3/kg in SI units). 

 Important Terms
 Specific gravity:
 A dimensionless ratio that compares the density of a substance
to the density of a reference substance, usually water.
 It provides a measure of how dense a substance is compared to
another substance, taking into account the difference in
densities between the two materials.
 Since specific gravity is a ratio of densities, it does not have
any units.
 The specific gravity of water is taken as 1.
 Important Terms
 Specific gravity:
It can be defined in either of two ways:
a. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of water at 4°C.
b. Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a
substance to the specific weight of water at 4°C.

 l l
s liquid  
 w w
For water at 4°C:
ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3
s=1
 Example
The specific wt. of water at ordinary temperature and
pressure is 62.4lb/ft3. The specific gravity of mercury is
13.56. Compute density of water, Specific wt. of mercury,
and density of mercury.
Solution:

1.  water   water / g  62.4/32.2  1.938 slugs/ft3

2.  mercury  s mercury  water  13.56 x62.4  846lb / ft 3
3. mercury  s mercury  water  13.56 x1.938  26.3slugs / ft 3

(Where Slug = lb.sec2/ ft)

 Example
A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m3 at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume,
and specific gravity relative to air weighing 12.0 N/m3?
Solution:

1. Density ρ  γ /g
ρ  16/9.81  16.631 kg/m 3

2. Specific volume υs  1/ρ

υus  1/1.631  0.613 m 3 /kg

3. Specific gravity s  γ f /γ air

s  16/12  1.333
 Example
The specific weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft3. compute its density
and specific gravity. What is its specific weight in kN/m3?
Solution:

1. Density    / g
  78.6/32.2  2.44 slugs/ft 3

2. Specific gravity s   l /  w
s  78.6/62.4  1.260
so   1.260x1000kg/m 3
  1260 Kg/m 3
3. Specific weight in kN/m 3
  xg
  9.81x1260  12.36 kN/m 3
 Example
Calculate the specific weight, density, specific volume and
specific gravity of 1liter of petrol weights 7 N.
Solution:
Given Volume = 1 liter = 0.001 m3 or 1 m3 = 1000 liters
Weight = 7 N
1. Specific weight,
γ = Weight of Liquid/volume of Liquid
γ = 7/ 0.001 = 7000 N/m3
2. Density,  =  /g
 = 7000/9.81 = 713.56 kg/m3
Solution (Cont.):
3. Specific Volume υs= 1/ 
 1/713.56
 =1.4x10-3 m3/kg
4. Specific Gravity = s = Specific Weight of Liquid/Specific
Weight of Water
s = Density of Liquid/Density of Water
s = 713.56/1000 = 0.7136
 Example
If the specific gravity of petrol is 0.70. Calculate its Density,
Specific Volume and Specific Weight.
Solution:
Given
Specific gravity = s = 0.70
1. Density of Liquid, s x density of water
= 0.70x1000
= 700 kg/m3
2. Specific Volume, υs = 1/ 
 
 x-3

3. Specific Weight, γ = 700x9.81 = 6867 N/m3

 Compressibility
 It is defined as:
“Change in Volume due to change in Pressure.”
 Refers to the measure of how much a substance (usually a gas
or a liquid) changes in volume in response to a change in
pressure.
 It quantifies the degree to which a substance can be
compressed or made denser under the influence of an external
force, such as an increase in pressure.
 The compressibility of a liquid is inversely proportional to
Bulk Modulus (volume modulus of elasticity).
Compressibility
 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
 It is defined as:
“A measure of its resistance to changes in volume under
the influence of an external pressure.”
 It quantifies how much a fluid's volume changes when
pressure is applied or released.
 The bulk modulus indicates the stiffness of a fluid with
respect to changes in volume due to pressure changes.
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
 Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform
under shear stress.
 It is commonly perceived as thickness, or resistance to flow.
 Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may
be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. Thus, water is
"thin", having a lower viscosity, while vegetable oil is "thick"
having a higher viscosity.
 The friction forces in flowing fluid result from the cohesion and
momentum interchange between molecules.
 All It is also known as Areal fluids (except super-fluids)
have some resistance to shear stress, but a fluid which
has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal
fluid.
 bsolute Viscosity or Dynamic Viscosity.
Viscosity
Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity

 As a fluid moves, a shear stress is developed

in it, the magnitude of which depends on the
viscosity of the fluid.
 Shear stress, denoted by the Greek letter (tau),

τ, can be defined as the force required to slide

one unit area layer of a substance over
another.
 Thus, τ is a force divided by an area and can

be measured in the units of N/m 2 (Pa) or lb/ft2.

Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity
 Figure shows the velocity gradient in a moving fluid.
U
F, U

AU
 Experiments have shown that: F
Y
Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity

F U du
   , lb-sec/ft2 or Pa-sec
A Y dy lb/ft2, Pa
 Kinematic Viscosity
 The kinematic viscosity ν is defined as:
“Ratio of absolute viscosity to density.”
 Where:
 µ = absolute viscosity in
 Pa-s
ρ = density in kg/m3
 It provides a measure of how fast a fluid can flow
under the influence of gravity.
 Common Units of Viscosity

System Absolute, µ Kinematic, ν

English lb-sec/ft2 ft2/sec
(slug/ft-sec)

Metric dyne-s/cm2 cm2/s

(poise) (stoke)
S.I. Pa-sec m2/s
(N-sec/m2)

Note:
1 poise = 1 dyne-sec/cm2 = 0.1 Pa-sec (1 dyne = 10-5 N)
1 stoke = 0.0001 m2/sec
 Example
Find the kinematic viscosity of liquid in stokes whose specific
gravity is 0.85 and dynamic viscosity is 0.015 poise.
Solution:
Given S = 0.85
 = 0.015 poise
= 0.015 x 0.1 N-s/m2 = x-3 N-s/m2
We know that S = density of liquid/density of water
density of liquid = S x density of water
0.85 x 1000kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity ,
x-3
x -6m2/s = x 10-6 / m2/s
=  stoke
 Example
Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space
between them is filled with an oil of viscosity μ = 0.958 Pa-
s. Assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line,
what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m2
area at a constant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm
from one of the surfaces?
 Surface Tension
 Cohesion: “Attraction between molecules of same surface”
It enables a liquid to resist tensile stresses.
 Cohesive forces are the attractive forces that exist between
molecules of the same substance. In other words, they are the
forces that hold similar molecules together within a substance.
 Adhesion: “Attraction between molecules of different
surface” It enables to adhere to another body.
 Adhesive forces are the attractive forces that exist between
molecules of different substances. They occur at the interface
or boundary between two different materials or phases.
 Surface Tension
 Surface tension is a physical property of liquids that describes the
tendency of the liquid's surface to resist deformation or rupture.
 Surface tension causes liquid surfaces to behave like a stretched elastic
membrane. It tries to minimize the surface area, resulting in a spherical
shape for small liquid droplets or the curvature of a meniscus in a
narrow container.
 Surface tension allows liquid droplets to form and maintain their
spherical shape, which is why raindrops and dewdrops are typically
round.
 Surface tension is also responsible for the ability of water to wet
surfaces and clean. It helps water spread across surfaces and break down
and carry away dirt and contaminants.
 Surface tension is responsible for capillary action, where liquids can rise
or fall in narrow tubes due to the balance between cohesive forces and
adhesive forces with the tube's walls.
Surface Tension
 Capillarity (Capillary Action)
 Capillarity (Capillary Action) is a phenomenon where a
liquid spontaneously rises or falls in a narrow tube or
capillary due to the combination of adhesive and cohesive
forces between the liquid and the tube's surface.
 Meniscus: The curvature of the liquid's surface within the
capillary tube is known as the meniscus. The shape of the
meniscus can be concave (curving downward) or convex
(curving upward) depending on the balance between adhesive
and cohesive forces.
 Capillarity (Capillary Action)
 Capillary Rise: When the adhesive forces are stronger than the
cohesive forces (e.g., in the case of water in a glass capillary tube), the
liquid rises within the tube. This is called capillary rise.
 Capillary Fall or Depression: Conversely, when cohesive forces
dominate (e.g., with mercury in a glass capillary tube), the liquid level
within the tube drops. This is referred to as capillary fall or depression.
Capillarity (Capillary Action)

Where:
θ = angle of contact
h = capillary rise or depression, m
γ = unit weight of fluid, kN/m3
d = diameter of the tube, m
σ = surface tension, N/m

Angle of contact (θ): The angle between the tangent

to the curve part of liquid surface at the point of
contact and solid part of glass inside the liquid.
 Metric to U.S. System Conversions,
Calculations, Equations, and Formulas

 Millimeters (mm) x 0.03937 = inches (")(in)

 Centimeters (cm) x 0.3937 = inches (")(in)
 Meters (m) x 39.37 = inches (")(in)
 Meters (m) x 3.281 = feet (')(ft)
 Meters (m) x 1.094 = yards (yds)
 Kilometers (km) x 0.62137 = miles (mi)
 Kilometers (km) x 3280.87 = feet (')(ft)
 Liters (l) x 0.2642 = gallons (U.S.)(gals)
 Calculations, Equations & Formulas

 Bars x 14.5038 = pounds per square inch (PSI)

 Kilograms (kg) x 2.205 = Pounds (P)
 Kilometers (km) x 1093.62 = yards (yds)
 Square centimeters x 0.155 = square inches
 Liters (l) x 0.0353 = cubic feet
 Square meters x 10.76 = square feet
 Square kilometers x 0.386 = square miles
 Cubic centimeters x 0.06102 = cubic inches
 Cubic meters x 35.315 = cubic feet
 Calculations, Equations & Formulas

 Inches (")(in) x 25.4 = millimeters (mm)

 Inches (")(in) x 2.54 = centimeters (cm)
 Inches (")(in) x 0.0254 = meters (m)
 Feet (')(ft) x 0.3048 = meters (m)
 Yards (yds) x 0.9144 = meters (m)
 Miles (mi) x 1.6093 = kilometers (km)
 Feet (')(ft) x 0.0003048 = kilometers (km)
 Calculations, Equations & Formulas

 Gallons (gals) x 3.78 = liters (l)

 Cubic feet x 28.316 = liters (l)
 Pounds (P) x 0.4536 = kilograms (kg)
 Square inches x 6.452 = square centimeters
 Square feet x 0.0929 = square meters
 Square miles x 2.59 = square kilometers
 Acres x 4046.85 = square meters
 Cubic inches x 16.39 = cubic centimeters
 Cubic feet x 0.0283 = cubic meters