Social Self:

Who Am I?
Dr. Nigar Alakbarova
Spring 2024
CRN: SOCS-1101-0
(20073/20074/20075)
 Higgins (1987): Identifies three types of schema (actual self,
ideal self, and “ought” self. According to Higgins self
Key Thinkers: discrepancy theory, the self will be motivated to change when
there is a discrepancy or difference between the actual self and
the other two.

Bem’s self-perception theory (1967, 1972): We

derive knowledge about the self from the Festinger’s social comparison
attributions we make about our own behavior. theory (1954): Self is derived
It can also be derived from imagining ourselves
from social comparisons where
behaving in a given way.
our feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors are compared to others
such that a social identity and
sense of self emerges.
Tesser’s self-maintenance model (1988): Since upward social comparisons can decrease self concept, then people may try to
ignore their similarity to another person or withdraw from a relationship to maintain a positive self-evaluation.

Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherall’s self categorization theory (1987): Knowledge of the self is also derived from group
membership, which produces a sense of social identity.
 Relationships, functions,
actions, and character traits are
What is Self-Concept? usually first thing we describe.

Executive function: Assist

• Define as sum of the people in regulating their
person’s attributes. behavior (self-control).
• In order to characterize
as individuals: We need
Organizational function: Allows
to recognize we are a person to organize or establish
separate from others. a framework for incoming
information and helps them
make sense of the world around
them.
 Present ourselves to variety of audiences: play different roles
in different contexts.

We have many selves: Is one aspect of the self more true or predictive of behavior than
another?

Do we know ourselves better than others know us?

Having access to our intentions, which observers do not have, is one reason why we
are sometimes inaccurate about ourselves.
 Strategic Self-Presentation
Goals: Desire to be seen as likable,
Efforts to shape others’ impressions in
competent, helpless, etc.
specific way: to gain influence, power,
sympathy, or approval.
• Self-promotion: Try to ensure that others form
impressions based on their most favorable self-aspects.
• Self-verification perspective: The process we use to lead Self-Presentation Tactics
others to agree with our own self views (negotiating to
ensure they agree with our self-claims).
• We prefer to be with others who share our views about
ourselves.
• Ingratiation tactics: When we try to make others like us by
conveying that we like them; praising others to flatter
them.
• Self-deprecating: Putting ourselves down or implying that
we are not as good as someone else.
• To privately think about the factors that made us who we are.
• How do people achieve insight into their own beliefs, attitudes,
emotions, and motivation?
• Self-knowledge is derived from introspection, a looking inward at
Introspection
one’s own thoughts and feelings.
• But it can also sometimes impair self-knowledge (by thinking too
much and being too analytical) also by overestimating the positives.
• Affective forecasting: People have difficulty projecting forward and
predicting future emotional events
• Impact bias: Overestimating the strength and duration of emotional
reactions.
 Thinking about reasons for our actions
can misdirect our quest for self-
“Judgmental Heart Has knowledge when our behavior are really
driven by our feelings.
Lack of Introspection”
We cannot accurately predict how we
would feel in future pos. or neg.
situations.

Dunn, Aknin, and Norton

(2008) research study on Psychology students rated their happiness,
spending money on others then given either 5$ or 20$ that they had
makes us happier than to spend by 5pm. Half was instructed to
spend on themselves and another half on
spending money on someone else. Results showed that they
ourselves. felt much happier spending on others than
the ones who spent on themselves
regardless of the amount they were given.
 Perceptions of our own behavior
• Bem’s self-perception theory
Self-perceptions of Emotion:
• Facial feedback hypothesis: changes in facial
expression can trigger corresponding changes in the
subjective experience of emotion.
• Facial movements spark emotion by producing
physiological changes in the brain.

• Your emotional state is

• People sometimes learn about themselves
revealed in the way you
by observing their own freely chosen
carry yourself.
behavior.
Self-perception of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation: When the person engages in an
activity for the sake of their own interest, challenge,
etc.
Extrinsic: When the person engages in an activity as a
means to an end, for tangible benefits (money, grades,
recognition, obligations, etc.).
Overjustification effect: When people get
overrewarded for doing something they enjoyed, they
lose interest in it.
Paradox: That reward can undermine rather than
enhance intrinsic motivation has been observed in
many settings.
 Social Comparison Theory:
Influences of other • Change someone’s social surroundings, and

people you can change that person’s spontaneous self-

description.

• When objective information is not readily

available, people evaluate themselves through
comparisons with similar others.

• When do we turn to others for comparative

information?

In states of uncertainty, when more objective means of self-

evaluation are not available.

2. With whom do we choose to compare ourselves?

We look to others who are similar to us in relevant ways.

Two-factor theory of emotion
• “Misery doesn’t just love any kind of company; it loves only
miserable company”.
• Stanley Schachter (1959): To test this theory, they injected
male volunteers with epinephrine (heightens physiological
arousal).
• 1st Group was warned, 2nd group was not, and 3rd received
placebo.
• Experiments on affiliation by electric shocks.
• The person must experience the symptoms of physiological
arousal (racing heart, perspiration, rapid breathing, etc.).
• Must make a cognitive interpretation that explains the source
of the arousal.
• Tajfel & Turner (1986) Social Identity Theory
• We can perceive ourselves differently at any given moment in time, Personal versus
depending on where we are on the personal-versus-social-identity
continuum.
Social Identity
• At personal level we think of ourselves primarily as individuals.
• At the social end, we think of ourselves as members of specific groups.
• We do not experience all aspects of our self-concept simultaneously.
• Intragroup comparisons: with other individuals who share our group
membership.
• Intergroup comparisons: involve contrasts between groups.
Autobiographical memories
• Memories shape the self-concept and vice versa.
• People often refer to recent past experiences than the distant
past.
• Two simple exceptions:
• Older adults tend to retrieve personal memories from their adolescence and early adulthood
years.
• People tend to remember transitional “firsts”.
• Not all experiences leave the same expression.
• Flashbulb memories: Humans are biologically
equipped for survival purposes to “print”
dramatic events in memory.
• The past is remembered as if it were a drama in
which the self was the leading player.
• The degree to which we perceive ourselves
positively or negatively; our overall attitude toward
ourselves. It can be measured explicitly or implicitly. Self-Esteem
• When we reflect on our achievements our self-
esteem increases.
• People with lower self-esteem: When they
experience negative feedback their self-esteem
suffers.
• High self-esteem is associated with bullying,
narcissism, and interpersonal aggression.
• Implies superiority to others.
Do Women and Men Differ in their levels of
Self-Esteem?
Women have been expected to have lower self-esteem overall
compared to men because self-esteem is responsive to
treatment we receive from others.

Research shows it is more common in lower and middle class

than in professional class.

Also, in older adults is less than in younger adults.

Culture and the Self Concept

• Cultures foster different conceptions of self.

• Cultural differences, influence the way we perceive,
feel about, and present ourselves in relation to
others.
• People from collectivist culture present themselves
as modest than individualistic cultures.

• Everyone has a need for positive self-

regard; each culture seeks to fulfill it in
different way.
Self-Discrepancy Discrepancies between the actual and
ideal selves are related to feelings of
Theory disappointment and depression.

Discrepancies between the actual and

the ought selves are related to shame,
guilt, and anxiety.

These emotional effects depend on the

amount of discrepancy and whether we
are consciously focused on it.
Certain situations increase self-awareness (camera,
mirror, audiences), and some are just more self
conscious than others.
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness forces us to notice self-
discrepancies and can produce a temporary
reduction in self-esteem.

To cope: we either adjust our behavior to meet our

standards or withdraw from the self-focusing
situation.

Heavy drinking and drugs can be viewed as a

means to escape self-awareness.
• Self-regulation fatigue: Self-control can temporarily be depleted by usage.
• This can be reversed: To enable additional self control we need to
consume more glucose and use self-affirmation. Self-Regulation and
• Ironic mental processes: Self-focused underpressure caused “choke up”.
• Self-Enhancement: We unconsciously flatter ourselves (reflex). Its Limits
• Self-serving cognitions: Harbor illusions of control, overestimate our
influence on personal outcomes.
• Self-handicapping: Making excuses to cope with the threatening
implications of failure.
• Basking in the glory of Others: If a sibling received an award, our self-
esteem increases.
• Downward Social comparisons: When our self-esteem is at stake.
 Class Activity

“I Am, I Am Not”

• Write 5 sentences beginning with the prompt, 'I am.’

• Write 5 sentences beginning with the prompt, “I am … when….”
• Then, write as many sentences as you can beginning with the prompt, 'I am not.’
• Group of three: Read back over your sentences and think about what you learned about yourselves from doing
this writing exercise.
• Reflect on what aspects of your self-concept grow and change when you must think explicitly about how you
do and do not see yourselves.