DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING PLANS

TEACHING PLAN

 A teaching plan is a blueprint for action to achieve the goal and the
objectives that have been agreed upon by the educator and the
learner.
 In addition to the goal and objectives, it also should include
purpose, content, methods and tools, timing, and evaluation of
instruction.
The three major reasons for constructing teaching plans
1. To force the teacher to examine the relation-ship among the steps of the teaching
process to ensure that a logical approach to teaching is taken, which can serve as
a map for organizing and keeping instruction on target.
2. To communicate in writing and in an outline format exactly what is being taught,
how it is being taught and evaluated, and the time allotted for accomplishment of
the behavioral objectives. If this is done, not only is the learner aware of and able
to follow the action plan, but, just as important, other healthcare team members
are informed and can contribute to the teaching effort with a consistent
approach.
3. To legally document that an individual plan for èach learner is in place and is
being properly implemented. Also, the existence of current teaching plans is
essential evidence required by healthcare agencies and organizations to satisfy
mandates for institutional accreditation.
Eight basic elements teaching plan (Ryan &. Marinelli, 1990):

1. The purpose
2. A statement of the overall goal
3. A list of objectives (and subobjectives, if necessary)
4. An outline of the related content
5. The instructional method(s) used for teaching the related content
6. The time allotted for the teaching of each objective
7. The instructional resources (material/tools and equipment) needed.

 Teaching plans can be presented in a number of different formats to meet institutional

requirements or the preference of the user, but all parts must be included for the teaching plan
to be considered comprehensive and complete.
Sample Teaching Plan Format
Purpose:
Goal:  This format is highly recommended because the use of columns allows the
educator, as well as anyone else who is using it, to see all the parts of the
Objectives Content Method of Time Resources Method of
and outline instruction allotted evaluation teaching plan at one time.
subobjectives
 Also, this format provides the best structure for determining whether a
relationship is apparent among all the elements of a plan.

 Internal consistency is the major criterion for judging the integrity of a

teaching plan. When constructing a teaching plan, the educator must be
certain that, above all else, internal consistency exists within the plan (Ryan &
Marinelli, 1990).

 A teaching plan is said to be internally consistent when all of its eight parts
are related to one another. Adherence to the concept of internal consistency
requires that the domain of learning of each objective must be consistently
reflected across each of the elements of the teaching plan, from the purpose
all the way through to the end process of evaluation.
Types of Objectives
 It is important to clarify the meaning of the terms educational objectives, instructional objectives,
and behavioral or learning objectives. Although often used synonymously, these terms can be
distinguished from one another.

 EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES are used to identify the intended outcomes of the education process,
whether in reference to an aspect of a program or a total program of study ,that guide the design of
curriculum units.

 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES describe the teaching activities and resources used to facilitate
effective learning(Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2004).

 BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES, also referred to as learning objectives, on the other hand, make use of
the modifier bebavioral or learning to denote that this type of objective is action oriented rather
than content oriented, learner centered rather than teacher centered, and short-term outcome
focused rather than process focused. Behavioral objectives describe precisely what the learner will
be able to do following a learning situation.
Characteristics of Goals and Objectives
 The terms goal and objective are often used inter-changeably-albeit incorrectly. A real difference exists between
the two terms. Health professionals must clearly understand this distinction when in the role of educator.
 Time span and specificity are the two factors that differentiate goals from objectives (Haggard, 1989).

A GOAL, is the final outcome of what is achieved at the end of the teaching-learning process.
- A goal is a stątement that describes the ideal or ultimate state of being at some future point in time. Goals are global
and broad in nature; they serve as long-term targets for both the learner and the teacher.
- Goals are the desired outcomes of learning that are realistically achievable usually in weeks or months. They are
considered multidimensional in that a number of objectives are subsumed under or incorporated into an overall goal.

An OBJECTIVE, in contrast, is a specific, single, unidimensional behavior. As stated by Anderson etal. (2001), “When we
teach, we want our students to learn. What we want them to learn as a result of our teaching are our objectives”.
- Objectives are short term in nature and should be achievable at the conclusion of one teaching session or usually
within a matter of days following a series of teaching sessions. According to Mager (1997)
- an objective describes a performance that learners should be able to exhibit before they are considered
competent.

 A behavioral objective is the intended result of instruction, not the process or means of instruction itself.
Objectives are statements of specific or short-term behaviors that lead step by step to the more general, overall
long-term goal.
WRITING BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES AND GOALS
 According to Mager (1997), the format for writing concise and useful behavioral objectives includes the
following three important characteristics:
1. Performance: Describes what the learner is expected to be able to do or perform to demonstrate the kinds of
behaviors the teacher will accept as evidence that objectives have been achieved. Activities performed by the
learner may be visible, such as writing or listing, or invisible, such as identifying or recalling.
Key questions: what should the learner be able to do?

2. Condition: Describes the testing situation, resources, assistance, or constraints under which the behavior will
occur, will be observed, or will be completed.
Key questions: under what condition should the learner be able to do it?

3. Criterion: Describes how well, with what ac-curacy, or within what time frame the learner must be able to perform
for the behavior to be considered acceptable; the standard, quality level, or amount of performance defined as
satisfactorily demonstrating mastery. It is the level of competence that a learner must achieve.
Key questions: How well must the learner be able to do it?

 A fourth component must also be included; it should describe the “who” to ensure that the behavioral objective is
learner centered. For education in health care, the learner may be the patient, family members or significant
others of the patient, professional staff, or health professions students.
An easy way to remember the four elements that should be in a behavioral objective is to follow the ABCD rule
proposed by Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldinó (2001):

A-audience(who)
B-behavior (what)
C-condition (under what circumstance)
D-degree (how much; how well; to what extent)

To link the behavioral objectives together, the following four steps are recommended:
1. Identify the testing situation (condition).
2. Identify who will perform (learner).
3. State what the learner will demonstrate(performance).
4. State how well the learner will perform(criterion).

For example:
“Following a 20-minute teaching session on relaxation techniques (condition), Mrs. Smith (learner) will be able to
identify (performance) three distinct techniques for lowering her stress level (criterion).”
Table 10-1 outlines the four-part method ofobjective writing. Table 10-2 gives samples ofwell-written and poorly
written objectives.
The four part method of objective writing
Sample of Written Objectives
Writting Objectives
Taxonomy of objectives
according to learning Domains
Taxonomy
 A taxonomy is a mechanism used to categorize things according to how they are related to one another. “A taxonomy
is a special kind of frame-work in which categories lie along a continuum”(Anderson et al., 2001, p. 4). For example,
biologists use taxonomies to classify plants and animals based on their natural characteristics.

 In the late 1940s, psychologists and educators became concerned about the need to develop a system for defining
and ordering levels of behavior according to their type and complexity (Reilly & Oermann, 1990).

 Bloom et al. (1956) and Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964) developed a very useful taxonomy, known as the
taxonomy of educational objectives, as a tool for systematically and logically classifying behavioral objectives. This
taxonomy, which became widely accepted as a standard aid for planning as well as evaluating learning, is divided into
three broad categories or domains-cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

 Inherent in the concept of taxonomy is the notion that although these three domains of cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor learning are described as existing as separate entities, they are, in fact, interdependent and can be
experienced simultaneously. Humans do not possess thoughts, feelings, and actions in isolation of one another and
typically do not compartmentalize learning. For example, the affective domain influences the cognitive domain and
vice versa; the processes of thinking and feeling influence psychomotor performance and vice versa (menix, 1996)
The Cognitive Domain
 The cognitive domain is known as the
“thinking” domain.

 Learning in this domain involves the

acquisition of information and addresses
the development of the learner's
intellectual abilities, mental capacities,
understanding, and thinking processes
(Eggen & Kauchak, 2001).

 Objectives in this domain are divided into

six levels, each specifying cognitive
processes ranging from the simple
(knowledge) to the more complex
(evaluation).
Examples Of Behavioral Objectivesin The Cognitive Domain
Analysis level:
After reading handouts provided by the educator, the family member will calculate the correct
number of total grams of protein included on average per day in the family diet.

Synthesis level:
Given a sample list of foods, the patient will devise a menu to include foods from the four food
groups (dairy, meat, vegetables and fruits, and grains) in the recommended amounts for daily
intake.
The Affective Domain
 The affective domain is known as the
“feeling” domain.
 Learning in this domain involves an in-
creasing internalization or commitment to
feelings expressed as emotions, interests,
beliefs, attitudes, values, and
appreciations. Whereas the cognitive
domain is ordered in terms of complexity
of behaviors, the affective domain is
divided into categories that specify the
degree of a person's depth of emotional
responses to tasks. The affective domain
includes emotional and social development
goals.
Examples Of Behavioral Objectives in The Affective Domain
Receiving level:
During a group discussion session, the patient will admit to any fears he may have about
needing to undergo a repeat angioplasty.

Responding level:
At the end of one-to-one instruction, the child will verbalize feelings of confidence in managing
her asthma using the peak flow tracking chart.

Characterization level:
Following a series of in-service education sessions, the staff members will display consistent
interest in maintaining strict hand-washing technique to control the spread of nosocomial
infections to patients in the hospital
The Psychomotor Domain
 The psychomotor domain is known as the
“skills” domain.
 Learning in this domain involves acquiring
fine and gross motor abilities with
increasing complexity of neuromuscular
coordination to carry out physical
movement such as walking, handwriting,
manipulation of equipment, or per-forming
a procedure.
 Psychomotor skill learning, according to
Reilly and Oermann (1990), “is a complex
process demanding far more knowledge
than suggested by the simple mechanistic
behavioral approach” (p. 81).
INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
AND SETTING
OBJECTIVES

After the discussion, the learners will be able to:

1. Define the term instructional method.

2. Explain the various types of instructional methods.
3. Describe how to use each method effectively.
4. Identify the advantages and limitations of each method.
5. Discuss the variables that influence the selection of the various methods.
6. Recognize techniques to enhance teaching effectiveness.
7. Explain how to evaluate instructional methods.
8. Classify instructional settings according to the primary purpose of the organization
or agency in which the health professional functions as educator.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY
 is the overall plan for a teaching-learning experience that involves the use of one or several methods
of instruction to achieve the desired learning outcomes (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2004).

INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
 is the way information is taught that brings the learner into contact with what is to be learned. Some
examples of methods are lecture, group discussion, one-to-one instruction, demonstration and
return demonstration, gaming, simulation, role-playing, role modeling, and self-instruction modules.
As the use of technology evolves, these methods may be incorporated into Internet-based courses
(Cook et al.,2008).

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS OR TOOLS

 are the objects or vehicles to transmit information that supplement the act of teaching. An audience
response system (ARS), books, videos, and posters are examples of materials and tools used as
adjuncts to communicate information.
 It is important to draw this distinction between the terms instructional methods and instructional
materials because they often are used interchangeably by educators and not dealt with as distinctly
separate entities, which they should be when planning an educational activity.
Decisions about which methods to use must be based on a consideration of such major
factors as the following:

• Audience characteristics (size, diversity, learning style preferences)

• Educator's expertise
• Objectives of learning
• Potential for achieving learning outcomes
• Cost effectiveness
• Instructional setting
• Evolving technology
LECTURE

 Medieval Latin term lecture, means “to read”.

 Is an oral presentation intended to present information or
teach people about a particular subject.
 Highly structured method by which the educator verbally
transmits information directly to a group of learners for the
purpose of instructions.
 One of the oldest and most often used approaches to teaching.
 Useful in describing patterns, highlighting main ideas and
presenting unique ways of viewing information.
 An ideal way to provide foundational background information
as a basis for follow-up group discussions.
LECTURE

Approaches to the effective transfer of knowledge during a

lecture:

 Use opening and summary statements

 Present key terms
 Offer examples
 Use analogies
 Use visual backups
PARTS LECTURE
1. Introduction
- Educator present an overview of the behavioral objectives related to the lecture topic. Delineates specific topics that
will be covered. Provide an outline. Specify ground rules.
- If the lecture is one of a series, the educator needs to make a connection with the overall subject and the topic being
presented as well as explain its relationship to previous topics covered in prior lecture and those that will follow
- Establish a rapport with the audience.

2. Body
- Actual delivery of the content related to the topic being addressed
- Can be combined with other teaching methods like discussion, Q and A sessions, to engage to participate actively.

3. Conclusion
- Final section of the lection wherein summarizing the information provided is done.
- Educator should wrap-up with every lecture.
- It deals with the achievement of closure or successful termination of the lecture.
Variables of Speech Need to be considered:
I. Speaking skills
 Volume
 Rate
 Pitch/tone
 Pronunciation
 Enunciation
 Proper grammar
 Avoiding annoying habits (e.g. the use of "Uhms")

II. Body language:

 Demonstrate enthusiasm
 Make frequent eye contact with audience
 Use posture and movement
 Covey self-confidence
 Demonstrate professionalism
 Use gestures
 Avoid repetitive movement
 Rely on head an hands to emphasize points and to keep the audience's attention
Use audiovisual materials (e.g. video, powerpoint slides)

General guidelines in developing powerpoint slides:

 do not put all content on slides, but include only the key concepts to supplement the presentation.
 Use the largest font possible.
 Do not exceed 25 words per slide.
 Choose colors that provide a high level of contrast between background and text.
 Use graphics to summarize important points (e.g. figures and tables).
 Do not overdo the use of animation, which can be distracting to the audience
Major advantages and Limitations of lecture
GROUP DISCUSSION
 a method of teaching whereby learners get together to
exchange information, feelings, and opinions with one an-
other and with the teacher.
 Also known as guided, collaborative, small-group, or
cooperative learning, the benefits of group discussion are
that it leads to a deeper understanding and a longer
retention of information, increased social support, greater
transfer of learning from one situation to another, more
positive interpersonal relationships, more favorable
attitudes toward learning, and more active learner
participation (Brookfield, 2006; John-son, Johnson, & Smith,
2007; Oakley & Brent,2004;Springer, Stanne, & Donovan,
1999).
 As a commonly employed instructional technique, this
method is learner centered as well as subject centered.
Group discussion is an effective method for teaching in both
the affective and cognitive domains (Springer et al., 1999).
Major advantages and limitations of group discussion
ONE-TO-ONE INSTRUCTION
 Involves face-to-face delivery of information, designed to meet the needs of an individual learner.
Formal: is a planned activity
Informal: an unplanned interaction
 Begins with an assessment of the learner and mutual setting (contract) of objectives to be
accomplished.
 Should never be lecture delivered. It should involve the learner.
 Each session should be 15- 20 minutes length: information is given in a small portions to facilitate
processing of information.
 Includes an instructions that are specific and timely.
 Involves moving learners from repeating the information that was shared to applying what they
have just learned.
 Can use questioning technique to encourage participation.
Problems with questioning:
 Questions can be so unclear
 It can contain too many facts to process effectively
Major advantages and limitations of one-to-one instruction
DEMONSTRATION and RETURN DEMONSTRATION
DEMONSTRATION
 is done by the teacher to show the learner how to perform a particular skill.
 The demonstration can be enhanced if the teacher slows down the pace of performing the
demonstration, exaggerates some of the steps (deTornyay & Thompson, 1987), or breaks
lengthy procedures into a series of shorter steps. This incremental approach to sequencing
discrete steps of a procedure is known as scaffolding and provides the learner with a clear and
exacting image ofeach stage of skill development (Brookfield, 2006).

RETURN DEMONSTRATION
 is carried out by the learner in an attempt to establish competence by performing a task with
cues from the teacher as needed.
 Should be planned to occur as close as possible to when the demonstration was given.
 Learners may need reaasurance to reduce anxiety prior to start of performance.
 Allow the learner to manipulate the equipment before using it.
Major advantages and limitationsDemonstration and Return Demonstration
GAMING
 A method of instruction requiring the learner to participate in a
competitive activity with preset rules.
 Goal: learners will win a game through application of
knowledge and rehearsing skills previously learned.
 “Gamer generation" or “Net generation": those who have
grown up with computer games and other technology affecting
their preferred learning styles, social interaction patterns, and
technology generally used.
 Improves cognitive and enhances also skills.

Sample word search game

Major advantages and limitations of gaming
SIMULATION

 is a trial-and-error method of teaching whereby an artificial or hypothetical experience is created

that engages the learner in an activity that reflects real-life conditions but without the risk-taking
consequences of an actual situation.
 Simulation is a highly innovative instructional method to teach health professionals the complex
world of health care in their respective disciplines in an effective, efficient, safe, and high quality
fashion.
 “Simulation is a technique not a technology-to replace or amplify real experiences with guided
experiences that evoke or replicate substantial aspects of the real world in a fully interactive
manner”.
Types of Simulation
 Written simulations that use case studies about real or fictitious situations and the learner must respond to these
scenarios. Health professionals, for example, are asked to describe how they would handle a personnel
communication problem on a unit or manage a physiologically complex patient in the critical care environment.
 Clinical simulations can be set up to replicate complex care situations, such as a mock cardiac arrest. An
experienced staff member is a buddy or a coach for the inexperienced staff member who is running the code. This
simulation allows the novice to practice these skills in a nonthreatening situation with immediate feedback.
Participants reported that this simulation helped them validate their thinking and allowed for ongoing thinking
out loud in formulating questions they might otherwise not have asked.
 Model simulations are frequently used to teach a variety of health professional audiences. An effective and
economical method to teach certain noninvasive skills is to ask a peer, instructor, or trained individual to act as a
patient. Standard patients-people trained to act as patients were found to be a more effective method of
simulation to teach students than were lectures and laboratory practice with a model.
An exciting new technology is high-fidelity whole-body patient simulators, such as Sim-Man, that reproduce in a
sophisticated, life like manner the cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary, and neurological systems. The more
sophisticated models (SimMan 3G) have the ability to respond to selected drugs; mimic heart, lung, and bowel
sounds; and give oximeter and vital sign readings that respond to a variety of interventions (Epstein,
2007).However, widespread use of this resource is still limited by the high cost of this technology.
 Computer simulations are in use in learning laboratories to mimic situations whereby information as well as
feedback is given to learners in helping them to develop decision-making skills.
Major advantages and disadvantages of Simulation
ROLE PLAY
 An instructional method by which learners participate in an unrehearsed dramatization.
 It arouse feelings and elicit emotional responses in the learners.
 Used primarily to achieve behavioral objectives in the affective domain.
 Places learners in real-life situation to help them develop understanding of other people
and why they behave the way they do.
Major advantages and limitations of Role-playing
ROLE MODEL
 Health professionals can teach students and staff new behaviors by consistently setting
examples and living the standards of the health profession. “Actions speak louder than
words" is a popular saying relevant to the use of self as a role model (de Tornyay
&Thompson, 1987).
Major advantages and limitations of Role-modeling
SELF-INSTRUCTION
 Self-instruction is a method used by the teacher to provide or design instructional activities
that guide the learner in independently achieving the objectives of learning.

 This method is sometimes difficult to identify as a singular entity because of the variety of
terms used to describe it, such as mini-course, self-instructional package, individualized
learning activities, and programmed instruction. For the purposes of this discussion, the
term self-instruction is used, and it is defined as a self-contained instructional activity that
allows learners to progress by themselves at their own pace (Abruzzese, 1996).
EACH SELF-INSTRUCTION MODULE NEEDS TO CONTAIN THE FOLLOWING ELEMENTS

1. An introduction and statement of purpose, which generally include a table of contents, the terminal objectives, the
intent of the module, and directions for its use.
2. A list of prerequisite skills that the learner needs to have to use the module.
3. A list of behavioral objectives, which are clear and measurable statements describing which skills the learner is
expected to acquire on completion of the unit.
4. A pretest to determine diagnostically whether the learner needs to proceed with the module. Some learners may
demonstrate mastery in the pretest and can move on to the next module. Other learners can get a sharper focus on
their areas of weakness and may decide to seek additional preparation prior to beginning the module.
EACH SELF-INSTRUCTION MODULE NEEDS TO CONTAIN THE FOLLOWING ELEMENTS

5. An identification of resources and learning activities, which specifies the equipment needed, such as videotapes, slides, or written
materials, and outlines the actual learning activities that will be presented. Objectives are given to direct the learner, followed by
material presented in small units of discrete information called frames. The total length of a well-designed module is kept relatively
short so as not to dampen the motivation to learn.
How the material is presented varies with the objectives and the resources available. For example, information may be given via
programmed instruction or through a series of readings. This can be followed by a video presentation of a relevant case study with
the requirement that the learner write a response to what has been read and observed.
6. Periodic self-assessments to provide feedback to the learner throughout the module. The user is frequently able to do periodic self-
assessments prior to moving on to the next unit. This al-lows the learner to decide whether the previous information has been
processed sufficiently enough to progress further.
7. A posttest to evaluate the learner's level of mastery in achieving the objectives. If learners are aware that a posttest needs to be
completed, this requirement encourages them to pay attention to the information. Keeping a record of final outcomes is helpful in
both staff and client education as documentation of competency, as proof that standards were met, and for the purpose of planning
for continuing education.
Major advantages and limitations of SELF-INSTRUCTION

ADVANTAGES
 Allows for self-pacing.
 Stimulates active learning.
 Provides opportunity to review and reflect on information.
 Frequent feedback is built in.
 Indicates mastery of material accomplished in a particular time frame.

LIMITATIONS
 Limited with learners who have low literacy skills.
 Not ideal for learners with visual and hearing impairments.
 Requires high levels of motivation.
 Not ideal for learners who tend to procrastinate.
 May induce boredom if this method is overused with a population with no variation in the activity design.