Analog Electronics

Dr. Md. Aynal Haque

Professor
Department of EEE, BUET

Email: aynal@eee.buet.ac.bd
aynal.haque@northsouth.edu
Cell: 018 1763 8600
 Topic 3

Diode
(Chapters 1, 2 of Text)
 Topic Contents

Construction
Operation
Characteristics
Diode Models
Diode Applications
Special Diodes
Physical Operation of Diodes
Objectives
 Basic Concept

pn junction:
• Semiconductor diode is basically a pn junction.
• pn junction consists of p-type semiconductor material (such as
Si) & n-type semiconductor material (such as Si).
• In actual practice, both p & n regions are the part of the same
Si crystal by creating regions of different doping (p & n).
• PN-Junction under Open-
Circuit Conditions
– The + sign represents
majority holes
– The – sign represents
majority electrons
• Diffusion occurs
• An electric field is created,
and drift occurs
Diffusion occurs
– majority holes in the p-
region diffuse to the n-
region (left to right)
– majority electrons in the n-
region diffuse to the p-
region (right to left)
– Diffusion current ID is
shown in the direction of the
holes.
• The holes that diffuse across the
junction into the n region quickly
recombine with some of the majority
electrons present there and thus
disappear.
• As recombination takes place close to
the junction, a region is created that is
depleted of majority carriers.
• This region is called the depletion
region or the space-charge region.
• A potential difference is created across
the region.
• The potential difference that is created
acts as a barrier to further diffusion
currents across the region.
• Drift Current
• The holes that diffuse across to the
n region quickly recombine with the
majority free electrons in the n
region.
– This recombination results in the
disappearance of free electrons in the n-
type material
– Some of the bound charge of the
donor atoms is no longer neutralized by
the free electrons
• This charge is said to be uncovered
• The same applies to the electrons
going from right to left.
This creates an electric field across this region and induces a drift
current in the minority carriers on each side as they randomly near the
edge of the depletion region

– free electrons on the p side (caused by thermal excitation) get swept across
the depletion region when they appear on the edge of the depletion region.
– holes on the n-side (caused by thermal excitation) get swept across the
depletion region when they appear on the edge of the depletion region.
– This creates a drift current IS
• Highly dependent on temperature
• Independent of barrier voltage

The drift current is only affected by the number of minority carriers

that appear at the edge of the depletion region.
 Equilibrium
• At equilibrium, the diffusion current is the same as the
drift current.
• Equilibrium is maintained by the barrier voltage.
• If, for some reason, the diffusion current exceeds the
drift current,
– more bound charge is uncovered
– the depletion layer will widen, V0 increases
– diffusion current decreases until ID= IS.
• If, for some reason, the diffusion current is smaller than
the drift current,
– uncovered charge decreases
– The depletion layer will narrow & Vo decreases
– diffusion current increases until ID = IS.
 Barrier Voltage

 N AND 
V0  VT ln  2 
 ni 
• The barrier voltage is dependent on
– doping concentrations
– temperature
• VT is dependent on temp
• Typically between 0.6V and 0.8V for silicon at
room temperature.
 Width of Depletion Region

• If both doping concentrations are equal, the depletion region

will be the same size on both sides of the junction.
• If one concentration is greater, then the depletion region would
have to extend farther into the more lightly doped side to
uncover an equivalent charge.

xn NA

xp ND

2 s  1 1 
Wdep  xn  x p     V0
q  NA ND 
Where εs is the electrical permittivity of Si = 11.7ε0 = 1.04 × 10-
12
F/cm. Typically, Wdep = 0.1μm to 1μm.
 Reverse Bias
• PN Junction under reverse-bias
– Electrons move in the external
circuit from the n-type to the p-
type.
• Electrons will leave the n-type region
• Holes will leave the p-type region
• Increase in uncovered charge
• Increase in width and charge of the
depletion region
– This will increase the barrier
voltage and decrease the diffusion
current until:
IS  ID  I
• PN Junction under reverse-bias
– If the current source is removed and a voltage
source Vr is used instead
• The barrier voltage will increase by the magnitude of
the voltage Vr.
• Current will initially be non-zero as the junction is
charged.
• The diffusion current will be greatly reduced
• The current in the junction will be
IS  ID  I
with I D  0
I  IS
 Junction Breakdown

• 2 possible breakdown mechanisms

– Zener
• Zener breakdown occurs when the electric field in the
depletion layer increases to the point where it can break
covalent bonds.
• Zener breakdown will occur when VZ<5V.
• The free carriers are swept across the field and add to
the reverse current I.
• Once started, large numbers of carriers can be generated
with little effect in the junction voltage.
• Current limited by outside circuit with a near constant
breakdown voltage.
– Avalanche
• Minority carriers have sufficient kinetic energy
to break covalent bonds when they smash into
them.
• Avalanche breakdown will occur when
VZ >7V.
• These released carriers have sufficient energy to
ionize other atoms and continue the process.
 Forward Bias
• This arrangement cause majority carriers to be injected
on each side of
the junction.
• The depletion region narrows and the charge diminishes.
• The reduction in barrier voltage increases the diffusion
current until

ID  IS  I
 I-V Characteristics

i-v characteristic curve of an ideal

diode
OFF mode ON mode
 Ideal Diode
• Positive terminal of diode is called anode and negative
terminal is called cathode.
• OFF mode: if a negative voltage is applied to diode, no
current flows and the diode behaves as Open Circuit. (v<0 and
i=0). This mode is called Reverse-biased mode of operation
and is said to be Cut Off.
Vanode<Vcathode => Reverse bias
• ON mode: If a positive voltage is applied to diode, zero
voltage drop appears across the diode and the diode behaves as
Short circuit. (i>0 and v=0). This mode is called Forward and
a forward-conducting diode is said to be Turned on or simply
on.
Vanode > Vcathode=> Forward bias
Problem
What is the output voltage for the following circuit? (a Rectifier)
 Problem
For the following circuit, if is a sinusoid with 24-V peak amplitude, find the
fraction of each cycle during which the diode conducts. Find the peak value of
the diode current and the maximum reverse-bias voltage that appears across the
diode.

24 sin   12
Conduction angle:
30    150, or 1/3 of a cycle
24  12
Peak value of diode current:
Id   0.12A
100
The maximum revers voltage is 24+12=36V
Problem
Find I and V in the following circuits.
 Regions of Operation

• There are 3 regions of

operation
– The forward-bias region
• v>0
– The reverse-bias region
• v<0
– The breakdown region
• v < -Vzk
 I-V Relation

i  Is e  v / nVT

• i is the forward-bias current


1
• Occurs when v on the diode is positive.
• the “cut-in” voltage is the voltage beneath which the
current is negligible small (generally around .5V)
• The current exponentially increases, and the voltage
drop typically lies in a narrow range from .6V to .8V
 i  Is e v / nVT
1 
I s is the saturation curre nt, or scale current
• The saturation current is directly proportional to the
cross-sectional area of the diode.
• For “small-signal” diodes, the saturation current is on
the order of 10e-15A.
• Strongly correlated to temperature
– doubles for every 5˚C rise in temperature.
  
i  I s e v / nVT  1
VT is the thermal voltage and is given by
kT
VT  where
q
k  Boltzmann's constant = 1.38x10-23 joules/kelvin
T  Absolute temperature in kelvins = 273+C
q  the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 10-19 coulomb
at room temperature (20 C), the value of VT is 25.2mV
We generally use VT  25mV
 i  Is e v / nVT
1 
• n is a constant between 1 and 2 that represents variances in the
material and physical structure of the diode.
• Diodes made using standard integrated circuit techniques
exhibit an n close to 1.
• Diodes available as two-terminal devices generally exhibit an n
closer to 2.
• We will use n=1 unless specified.
i  Is e v / nVT

1
for i I s
i I s ev / nVT
i
v nVT ln
IS
i1  I s e
V1 / nVT

i2  I s e V2 / nVT

I2 V2 V1  / nVT

e
I1
I2 I2
V2  V1  nVT ln  2.3nVT log
I1 I1
Problem
Consider a silicon diode with n=1.5. Find the change in
voltage if the current changes from 0.1mA to 10mA.

I2 I2
V2  V1  nVT ln  2.3nVT log
I1 I1
10 ma
Vdiff   2.3 1.5 VT log  172.5 mV
1ma
Problem
A silicon junction diode with n=1 has v=0.7V at i=1mA.
Find the voltage drop at i=.1mA and i=10mA.

I2 I2
V2  V1  nVT ln  2.3nVT log
I1 I1
.1ma
Vdiff   2.3 1VT log  .58mV , V2  .64V
1ma
10ma
Vdiff   2.3 1VT log  .58mV , V2  .76V
1ma
 Reverse Bias Region

• In the reverse-bias region, the current is theoretically

i Is
• Real diodes often exhibit a much larger current due to
leakages. However, the current is still quite small (nA
range).
• There is also a slight increase with voltage for
reverse-bias current.
 Breakdown Region

• When the voltage reaches a certain negative potential,

the diode will begin conducting current. This “knee”
is known as the breakdown voltage, Vzk.
• The Z stands for Zener and the K for knee.
• diodes that make use of the breakdown voltage and
it’s near constant voltage/current relationship to be
used in voltage regulation.
 Zener Diode
• The very steep i-v curve that the diode exhibits in the breakdown
region and the almost constant voltage drop that indicates suggest
that diodes operating in the breakdown region can be used in the
design of voltage regulators.
• Normal Si diode can’t operate in breakdown region. So, special
diodes are manufactured to operate specially in the breakdown
region. Such diodes are called breakdown diodes or Zener diodes.

i-v curve for

normal Si diode
• For currents greater than knee current Izk , the i-v curve is almost
constant.
• The manufacturer usually specifies the voltage drop across the
zener diode VZ at a specifies test current IZT. This point is labelled
as Q.
• As the current through zener diode deviates from IZT, the voltage
across it will change slightly.
For ΔI current change, voltage change, ΔV= ΔI×rZ
where rz = incremental resistance of zener diode at operating point Q
= dynamic resistance of the zener
• rz is in the range of few ohms to a few tens of ohms.
• Vz is in the range of few volts to a few hundred volts.
• In addition to specifying Vz (at a particular IzT), rz,Vzk,
the manufactures also satisfies the maximum power
that the device can safely dissipate.
• Say, a 0.5W, 6.8V zener diode can operate safely at
currents up to a maximum of about 70mA.
• VZ denotes the point at which the straight line of
slope 1/rz intersects the voltage axis. VZ = VZ0 + IZrZ
Problem
A 6.8-V Zener diode in the circuit
below is specified to have Vz=6.8V at
Iz=5mA, rz=20 ohms, and Izk=0.2mA.
The supply voltage is nominally 10V
but can vary by +/- 1V.

a) Find VO with no load and

with V  at its nominal value.

VZ  VZ0  rz I Z
6.8  VZ0  20  5mA, VZ 0  6.7V
V   VZ0 10  6.7
Iz    6.346mA
R  rz 0.5  0.02
VO  VZ0  I Z rz  6.7  6.346  0.02  6.827V
b) Find the change in resulting from the  1V change in V  .
 
Note that VO / V  usually expressed in mV/V, is known
as line regulation.

rz 20
VO  V  1   38.5mV
R  rz 500  20
Line Regulation=38.5mV/ V
c) Find the change in VO resulting from connecting a load
resistance RL that draws a current I L of 1 mA, and hence
find the load regulation  VO I L  in mV/mA.

The load draws a current of 1mA

from the diodes ...
VO  rz I Z  20  1  20 mV
Load Regulation=-20mV/mA
d) Find the change in VO when R L  2 k 
e) Find the change in VO when R L  0.5 k 

RL of .5k would draw a load current of

6.8 / 0.5  13.6mA. This is not possible as
the current though R is only 6.4mA. Therefore,
the Zener must be cut off.
 RL 0.5
VO  V  10  5V
R  RL 0.5  0.5
Therefore, the zener is not in breakdown.
f) What is the minimum value of RL for which the diode
still operates in the breakdown region?

To be at breakdown, I Z  I ZK  0.2mA
and VZ  VZK  6.7V. In this case, the
worst-case (lowest) current through R is
9  6.7
 4.6mA. The load current is therefore
0.5
4.6  0.2  4.4mA. R L is therefore
6.7
RL   1.523k
4.4
Diode Models
Objectives
 Exponential Model

• Graphical Analysis

VD

ID  IS e nVT

VDD  VD
ID 
R

• The most accurate description of the diode operation in the

forward region is provided by the exponential model.
• Graphical analysis aids in the visualization of circuit operation.
Problem 1
Determine the current and the diode voltage for the following circuit with V DD =5V
and R=1k. Assume that the diode has a current of 1 mA at a voltage of .7 V and that
its voltage drop changes by .1 V for every decade of change in current.
Iteration 1
V V 5  0.7
I D  DD D   4.3mA
R 1
I I
V2  V1  nVT ln 2  2.3nVT log 2
I1 I1
2.3nVT  .1
Iteration 2
I
V2  V1  0.1log 2 5  0.763
I1 ID   4.237mA
1
V1  0.7V, I1  1mA, I 2  4.3mA  V2 =0.763V
4.237
VD  0.762V V2  0.763  0.1log  0.762V
4.3
I D  4.237 mA
 Piecewise Linear Model
Also known as the battery + resistance model

iD  0, vD  VD 0 VD 0  0.65V and rD  20 
 vD  VD 0 
iD    , vD  VD 0
 rD 
Problem 2
Repeat previous using the Piecewise linear model with

V D 0  0.65V and rD  20 

5  0.65
ID   4.26mA
1  0.02
VD  VD 0  I D rD  0.65  4.26  0.02  0.735V
Constant Voltage Drop Model
Problem 3
Repeat Problem 2 using the constant voltage drop model

I D  5  0.7  4.3mA
Problem 4
For the same circuit, find the current and the diode voltage with
VDD = 5V and R=10k. Assume that the diode has a current of 1
mA at a voltage of 0.7 V and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1
V for every decade of change in current.
(a) Iteration
(b) Piecewise linear with the same parameters
(c) the constant-voltage-drop model
(a) 0.434 mA, 0.663 V
(b) 0.434 mA, 0.659 V
(c) 0.430 mA, 0.7 V
 Small-Signal Model
• The diode is biased to operate
(in this case) at 0.7V.
• The AC response can be
modeled as a resistance equal to
the inverse slope of the tangent i
it is small enough (small-signal
model)
• This concept of restricting an
AC signal to the short, linear
region around some DC bias
point is used throughout this
course.
 • Small-Signal Approximation
ID  ISe VD / nVT
– Valid for signals whose amplitudes are smaller
vD t   VD  vd t  than about 10mV for n=2 and 5mV for n=1

iD t   I S evD / nVT
iD t   I S e
VD  vd  / nVT
Small Signal Approximation
iD t   I S eVD / nVT evd / nVT  v 
iD t   I D 1  d  rd 
nVT
iD t   I D evd / nVT  nVT  ID
ID
x x 2 x3 x 4 iD t   I D  vd Note that is rd 
1
e  1      ...,
x
nVT
1! 2! 3! 4! ID
v iD t   I D  id rd is dependent
if d 1,
nVT ID on the Bias Current
id  vd
 vd  nVT
iD t  I D 1  
 nV T 
Problem 5
Consider the same circuit for the case in which R=10k. The power supply has a DC
value of 10V on which is superimposed a 60-Hz sinusoid of 1V peak amplitude.
Calculate both the dc voltage of the diode and the amplitude of the sine wave that
appears across it. Assume the diode to have a 0.7V drop at 1mA and an n=2.

10  0.7
ID   0.93mA
10
nVT 2  25
rd    53.8
ID 0.93
 rd 0.0538
vd ( peak )  V s 1  5.35mV
R  rd 10  0.0538
• Diode Regulator
– Design the following circuit to provide an output voltage of 2.4V. Assume the
diodes have a current of 1 mA at a voltage of .7 V and that its voltage drop changes
by .1 V for every decade of change in current.

𝑉 𝑂 =2.4 V . Each diode must therefore drop .8 V

The current must be 1 decade above 1 mA in order
for the diode to change from .7 to .8 V drops .
Thus , the current is 10 mA , and the resistance must be
10 −2.4
=10 mA , 𝑅=760 𝛺
𝑅
• Voltage Regulation
– Consider the following circuit. What is the percentage change in the regulated
voltage caused by (a) a 10% change in the power-supply voltage and (b) connection
of a 1k load resistance?
For a 10% power supply change,
10  2.1
I  7.9mA
1
nVT 2  25
rd    6.3 
ID 7.9
r  3rd  18.9 
r 0.0189
vO  2 2  37.1mV
rR 0.0189  1
so the change in the diode is  18.5 mV
or  6.2 mV per diode. (Remember
that we said that the small-signal is
valid for Amplitudes less than 10mV
for n=2, and 5mV for n=1
Diode Applications
 Rectifier

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an AC

signal into a DC signal.
Rectifiers are used as components of power supplies
and as detectors of radio signals.
Rectifiers may be made of diode components.
There are two types of rectifier circuits:
(a) Half-wave rectifier
(b) Full-wave rectifier
 Half Wave Rectifier

Utilizes alternate half-cycles of input sinusoid.

Diode is modeled using piecewise linear model.

vs  VD 0 vo  0
R
vs  VDo vo   vs  VD 0   vs  VD 0
R  rD rD  R

Transfer characteristic curve

• In selecting diodes for rectifier design, 2 parameters must be
specified :
(a) Current handling capability required of the diode, (determined by the
largest current the diode is expected to conduct.)
(b) PIV (peak inverse voltage) that the diode must be able to withstand
without breakdown, (determined by maximum reverse bias voltage
appearing across the diode.)
For half wave rectifier, PIV = VS

* It is usually prudent, however to select a diode that has a

reverse breakdown voltage at least 50% greater than the
expected PIV.
 Full Wave Rectifier

Full wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the input sinusoid.

To provide a unipolar output, it converts the negative halves of the
sine wave to the positive ones.
Full wave rectification can be obtained in two ways-
 Full wave rectifier using a transformer with a center-tapped
secondary winding
 Full wave Bridge Rectifier
Full Wave Center-Tap Rectifier
Secondary XFR winding is center-tapped to
provide two equal voltages (vs) across the
two halves of secondary windings
During +ve half cycle,
D1 -------- On
D2 --------- Off
Current (I) will flow through D1, R and Back to
sec. center tap coils.

Output voltage, V0 = vs – VD
During -ve half cycle,
D2 ---------- On
D1 ---------- Off
Current (I) will flow
through D2 , R & will
back to sec. tap Winding.
Output voltage, V0 = vs –VD
• During positive half cycle, D1 is ON & D2 is OFF.
Voltage at cathode of
D2 = v0 & anode = -vs
So, reverse voltage across D2 = v0 + vs
It will reach its maximum value, when
v0 = VS – VD
vs = VS
So, PIV = 2VS - VD
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The circuit is known as
bridge rectifier because of
the similarity of its
configuration to that of
Wheatstone bridge.
No center-tapped
transformer is required
Bridge rectifier is
inexpensive as one can buy
a bridge rectifier in one
package.
During +ve half cycle,
D1 and D2 are ON
D3 and D4 are Off.
Current (I) will flow through D1,R, D2 and back to XFR.
O/p voltage,V0= vs- 2VD
• During -ve half cycle,
D1 and D2 are Off
D3 and D4 are On.
• Current (I) will flow through
D3,R, D4 and back to XFR.
• O/p voltage,V0= vs- 2VD
 Bridge Rectifier
Advantages
• ½ the PIV of the full wave
• Don’t need a center-tapped transformer
• Only need half of the turns in the secondary winding
Limitations
– 4 diodes are required
Filter Capacitor
 Peak Rectifier

• Operating principle: v1 be a sinusoid

input with a peak value of VP and
assume the diode to be ideal.
• As v1 goes positive, diode conducts &
capacitor is charged so that v0 = v1.
This situation continues until v1
reaches to VP.
• Beyond the peak, as v1 decreases,
diode goes to reverse biased and v0
remains same (constant) as there is no
path for capacitor to discharge.
• Thus the circuit provides a dc voltage
output equal to the peak of input sine
wave.
• Assume, diode to be ideal. For an
sine input, the capacitor charges to
the peak of the input, Vp.
• Then, diode operates in cut off mode
and capacitor discharges through the
load R.
• The capacitor discharge will continue
for almost the entire cycle, until v1
exceeds the capacitor voltage.
• Then the diode turns on again,
charges the capacitor up to peak of v1
and the process repeats itself.
• In order to keep the output voltage
from too much decreasing during
capacitor discharge, one should select
a value for C so that time constant,
RC >> discharging interval.
 Uses of Peak Rectifier
• Used in signal processing systems where it is required
to detect the peak of an input signal. In such a case,
the circuit is referred to as a peak detector.
• Peak detector is used in the design of a demodulator
for amplitude modulated (AM) signal.
 Rectifier Performance
Mainly 3 parameters

• Ripple Factor (RF)

• Form Factor (FF)
• Efficiency
 Ripple Factor
Ripple: A ripple is defined as the fluctuating AC component in the
rectified DC output.
Ripple  iL  I dc  vL  Vdc

Ripple Factor: The ratio of RMS value of an alternating current component in the
rectified output to the average value of rectified output. It is a dimensionless
quantity and always has a value less than unity.

Form Factor: The form factor is the ratio of RMS value to the DC value.
 Parameters
v /  v  Vdc
T T T T
1 1 2 1 1
 v  V  T 0 T 0 T 0
2
V/
rms  dc dt  v dt  V 2
dc dt  2vVdc dt
T 0

T T T
1 2 2 1 1
     2Vdc  v dt  Vrms  Vdc2  2VdcVdc
2
v dt Vdc dt
T 0 T 0 T 0

 Vrms
2
 Vdc2
2
V / 2
Vrms  Vdc2  Vrms  Vrms
RF  rms
     1  FF  1
2
FF 
Vdc Vdc  Vdc  Vdc

Pdc Vdc2 / R Vdc2 I dc2

  2  2  2
Pac Vrms / R Vrms I rms
 Rectifier Performance (HWR)
T /2
1 Vm
 cos t 0
T /2
Vdc  Vm sin t dt  
T 0
T
Vm  T  Vm Vm
  cos  cos 0      2  
T 2 2 
T /2 T /2
1 Vm 2
  V sin t  dt   1  cos 2t  dt
2
Vrms m
T 0
2T 0

T /2
Vm 2  sin 2t  Vm 2 T sin (2T / 2)  sin 0 
 t  2    2  0  
2T 0 2T 2
Vm 2 T Vm
 
2T 2 2
V V /2 
FF  rms  m   1.57 RF  FF 2  1  1.57 2  1  1.21
Vdc Vm /  2

Vm /  
2 2
V 4
 dc
   40.5%
Vm / 2  
2 2 2
V rms
 Rectifier Performance (FWR)
T /2
1 2Vm
 cos t 0
T /2
Vdc  Vm sin t dt  
T /2 0
T
2Vm  T  2Vm 2Vm
  cos  cos 0      2  
T 2 2 
T /2 T /2
1 2Vm 2
  V sin t  dt   1  cos 2t  dt
2
Vrms m
T /2 0
2T 0

T /2
Vm 2  sin 2t  Vm 2 T sin (2T / 2)  sin 0 
 t  2    2  0  
T 0 T 2
Vm 2 T Vm
 
T 2 2

Vrms Vm / 2 
FF     1.11
Vdc 2Vm /  2 2 RF  FF 2  1  1.112  1  0.48
 2Vm /  
2 2
V 8
 dc
   81%
V  
2 2 2
V
m / 2
rms
 HWR
Advantages
• Affordable
• Simple connections
• Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less
Limitations
• Ripple production is more
• Harmonics are generated
• Utilization of the transformer is very low
• The efficiency of rectification is low
Applications
• Power rectification: is used along with a transformer
• Signal demodulation: for demodulating the AM signals
• Signal peak detector: is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform
 FWR
Advantages
• The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less

Limitations
• Expensive

Applications
• For supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this bridge rectifiers are
used.
• For detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.
 Performance Comparison

Half Wave Full Wave

Parameter
Rectifier Rectifier
No. of 2 or 4 depending on
1
diodes used the type of circuit
Form
1.57 1.11
factor
Rectifier
40.5% 81%
efficiency
Ripple
More (1.21) Less (0.48)
factor
Clipper / Limiter
 Hard limiter

Soft limiter

If an input waveform (shown in Fig.) is fed to a double

limiter, then its two peaks will be clipped off. Limiters are
therefore sometimes referred to as Clippers.
• Double limiter types -------- (a) Hard Limiter
(b) Soft Limiter
• Uses: variety of signal processing systems.
• The transfer characteristic curve is obtained using constant
voltage drop model.
• Assume, a smooth transition between linear & saturation regions
of the transfer characteristic curve.
• In Fig. (a), for v1<0.5V, the diode is cut off, no current flows and
voltage drop across R = 0; Thus v0 = v1 .
• When v1>0.5V, diode turns on and limiting v0 to one diode drop
(0.7V).
• In Fig. (b), the diode is reversed. For
v1> -0.5V, the diode is cut off, no
current flows & voltage drop across R
= 0; Thus v0 = v1 .
• When v1<-0.5V, diode turns on and
limiting v0 to one diode drop(0.7V).
• Fig. (c) represents the double limiting
circuit.
• Here, linear region is obtained for -
0.5V≤v1 ≤0.5V. For this range, both
diodes are off & v0 = v1.
• As v1exceeds 0.5V, D1 turns on &
limits v1 to 0.7V. As v1 goes more
negative than -0.5V, D2 turns on &
limits v0 to -0.7V.
• The thresholds and
saturation levels of diode
limiters can be controlled by
using strings of diodes
and/or by connecting a dc
voltage in series with the
diode(s).
• Limiting occurs in the positive
direction at a voltage of Vz2 + 0.7,
where 0.7V represents the voltage
drop across zener diode Z1 when
conducting in the forward
direction.
• For negative inputs, Z1 acts as a
zener and output voltage –(Vz1+
0.7), while Z2 conducts in the
forward direction.
• This type of pair of zener diodes
is called Double-anode zener.
 Clamper or DC Restorer

 Also known as a Clamped Capacitor . Assume an ideal diode. The charge on

the capacitor, Vc is 6 volts when the diode is conducting, and V 0 is 0. Output
voltage, v0 = v1 + vc
 When Vi jumps to 4 volts, the diode turns off, but there is still 6 volts across
the cap. Therefore, the output is at 10V. Essentially, this circuit clamps the
voltage on the bottom to 0, and moves the waveform up.
 One use of this circuit is for obtaining average values and detecting “duty
cycles” based on the average value. This is useful in PWM (pulse-width
modulation).
• Clamped Capacitor with Resistor
– While the output is above ground,
a current must flow in R.
• This comes from the cap
discharging (as the diode is
off).
• This falls exponentially with
CR.
– When the input switches, the
output switches the same amount,
and then the capacitor is rapidly
charged from the diode.
• The resulting output is just a
few tenths of a volt negative.
 Voltage Doubler
• The circuit composed of two sections:
a clamp formed by C1 and D1, and a
peak rectifier formed by D2 and C2.
• Input is sinusoid with amplitude VP
and assume, the diode to be ideal.
• Here, the positive peaks are clamped
to 0V, the negative peak reaches -2Vp.
• In response to this waveform, peak-
detector section provides across
capacitor C2 a negative dc voltage of
magnitude 2Vp.
• As the output voltage is double the
input voltage, the circuit is known as
voltage doubler.

Waveform across diode D1

 DC Power Supply

Block diagram of a DC power supply

• The power supply is fed from 120V rms 60Hz ac line, and it
delivers a dc voltage (usually in the range of 5-20V) to an
electronic circuit represented by the load block.

• Power Transformer: consists of 2 separate coils wound around an

iron core that magnetically couples the 2 windings.
 Primary windings have N1 turns and is connected to 120V ac power supply
& secondary windings have N2 turns and is connected to the circuit of dc
power supply.
 AC voltage, vs = 120×(N2/N1) V(r.m.s.) develops between two terminals of
secondary windings.
 By choosing appropriate turns ratio (N2/N1) for the transformer, particular
dc voltage output can be supplied.
[For 8V r.m.s. in secondary winding may be appropriate for a dc
output of 5V. For this, 15:1 turns ratio is required.]
• Diode Rectifier & filter: Diode rectifier converts input sine wave
(vs) to a unipolar pulsating output waveform. Pulsating nature
makes it unsuitable as a dc source for electronic circuits, hence
filter is required.

• Voltage regulator: The output of filter contains some ripple. To

reduce ripple and to stabilize the magnitude of dc output supply,
voltage regulator is employed (Zener shunt regulator).
Special Diodes

• Zener Diode
• Tunnel Diode
• LED
• PIN Diode
• Photodiode
 Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode that has effectively
"negative resistance" due to the quantum mechanical effect called tunneling
(a quantum mechanical phenomenon whereby a wavefunction can propagate
through a potential barrier).
Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel
through the very narrow P-N junction barrier and fill electron states in the conduction band on
the N-side which become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the P-side of the P-N
junction. As voltage increases further, these states become increasingly misaligned, and the
current drops. This is called negative differential resistance because
current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases beyond a fixed transition
point, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction
across the P-N junction, and no longer by tunneling through the P–N junction barrier.

When used in the reverse direction, tunnel diodes are called back
diodes (or backward diodes) and can act as fast rectifiers with zero
offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an
accurate square law characteristic in the reverse direction).
Under reverse bias, filled states on the P-side become increasingly
aligned with empty states on the N-side, and electrons now tunnel
through the P-N junction barrier in reverse direction.
 Light Emitting Diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light
when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with holes,
releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross
the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple
semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and

Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted high-brightness red solid-state semiconductor
by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately
broadband light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor, which 24–27 nm for all three colors.
emits at roughly 500–700 nm
 p-i-n Diode
• A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region
between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-
type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used
for ohmic contacts.
• The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary p–n diode. The wide
intrinsic region makes the PIN diode an inferior rectifier (one typical function
of a diode), but it makes it suitable for attenuators, fast switches,
photodetectors, and high-voltage power electronics applications
 Photodiode
A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode. It produces current when
it absorbs photons. The package of a photodiode allows light (or infrared or
ultraviolet radiation, or X-rays) to reach the sensitive part of the device. The
package may include lenses or optical filters. Devices designed for use specially
as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the
speed of response. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their
surface area increases. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
A solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.

Response of a silicon photo diode

vs wavelength of the incident light
 Questions???

Thank You!!!