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002a1 - Concepts in General Pathology

The document defines key terminology used in pathology and describes the study of diseases. It outlines different diagnostic techniques pathologists use including histopathology, cytopathology, hematopathology, and various tests. The techniques are used to identify structural and functional abnormalities that occur from diseases.

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140 views38 pages

002a1 - Concepts in General Pathology

The document defines key terminology used in pathology and describes the study of diseases. It outlines different diagnostic techniques pathologists use including histopathology, cytopathology, hematopathology, and various tests. The techniques are used to identify structural and functional abnormalities that occur from diseases.

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Definition of terminologies

Pathology The term “pathology” is derived from the Greek words pathos which
means disease and logos which means study, thus pathology is a branch of
biological sciences that deals with the study of all structural and functional
abnormalities (at the level of cells, tissues, organs and body fluids) that take
place as a result of a disease. Pathology is considered a vital link between basic
sciences (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology…….etc.) and
clinical sciences (internal medicine, surgery, neurology,
dermatology……….etc.).
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES APPLICABLE TO PATHOLOGY
it is important for a beginner in pathology to be familiar
with the language used in pathology : - i.e.
▪ the terminologies and the jargon applicable to
pathology subject
PATHOLOGY
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES APPLICABLE TO
PATHOLOGY
Since pathology is the study of disease, then what is
disease?
IN SIMPLE LANGUAGE, DISEASE is opposite of health i.e.
what is not healthy is disease.
 DISEASE may be defined as a loss of ease/comfort to the
body
 .Disease →(dis-ease): - -Dis is a prefix meaning lack of.. as in
discomfort etc. etc.
HEALTH may be defined as
a condition when the individual is in complete accord with
the surroundings.
DISEASE
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES APPLICABLE TO PATHOLOGY. CONT.
…….
●Pathology
■the scientific study of the anatomy and the physiology of the
body in disease.
●Anatomy
■the science that deals with the structures of the body.
●Physiology
■the science that deals with the normal functions of the body.
●As such,
■Pathology therefore may be said to be the scientific study of the
anatomy and the “physiology” of the body in disease.

NB -The physiology here is thus not normal and hence it is referred


to as Pathophysiology i.e. - PHYSIOLOGY OWING TO DISEASE.
MORE TERMINOLOGIES APPLICABLE TO PATHOLOGY
-Patient– Is an individual affected by disease.
Lesions – are the characteristic changes in tissue and cells produced by disease
in an individual or experimental animal
Aetiology – the science dealing with causation of lesion or disease.
Pathogen – a disease producing agent.
Pathogenesis – the mechanism by which lesions are produced in other words
underlying mechanisms that produce disease signs and symptoms.
Pathognomonic –Means peculiar to a certain disease or characteristic of a
certain disease
Pathologic changes – Findings on examination of diseased tissues.
The changes can be recognized with naked eyes (gross / macroscopic) or
studied by microscopic examination of tissues.
TERMINOLOGIES APPLICABLE TO PATHOLOGY SUBJECT. CONT.…….

 Cell - one of the building blocks of a tissue. Many cells which have similar
properties are grouped into tissues.
Tissue - a group of cells which have similar properties
Organ - a structure composed of several different types’ tissues.
System - a group of organs that performs a particular function or multiple
related functions i.e. when a number of organs have related functions they
are classified as a system.
Human body is composed of systems but NB no one system can operate in
isolation
Symptoms – functional implications of the lesion felt by the patient.
Physical signs – functional implications of the lesion discovered by the
clinician
Syndrome – a group of symptoms which occurring together, signify a
particular disease.
Diagnosis – the answer to what is wrong with a patient, arrived at on
history taking, physical examination and investigation.
Treatment – what can be done for the patient to get cure.
Prevention – what should be done to avoid disease spread and /or
complications
Prognosis – a forecast of the probable course and termination of a disease.
WHAT SHOULD WE KNOWN ABOUT A DISEASE?
WHAT SHOULD WE KNOWN ABOUT A DISEASE?
DEFINITION
EPIDEMIOLOGY – WHERE AND WHEN?
 PATHOLOGY ETIOLOGY – WHAT IS THE CAUSE
DIAGNOSIS PATHOGENESIS – EVOLUTION OF DISEASE
MANANGEMENT MORPHOLOGY – STRUCTURAL CHANGES
FUNTIONAL CONSEQUENCES
PROGNOSIS
PREVENTION
In summary, pathology studies: -
Etiology → Pathogenesis → Morphologic changes → Pathophysiology (displayed by Clinical features)

■Human pathology is the largest branch of pathology.


■It is conventionally divided into
 General Pathology dealing with general principles of
disease, and
 Systemic Pathology that includes study of diseases
pertaining to the specific organs and body systems
DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES USED IN PATHOLOGY
The pathologist uses the following techniques to
diagnose diseases:
a. Histopathology
b. Cytopathology
c. Hematopathology
d. Immunohistochemistry
e. Microbiological examination
f. Biochemical examination
g. Cytogenetics
h. Molecular techniques
i. Autopsy
1. Histopathological techniques
●Histology, also known as microscopic anatomy or
microanatomy, is the branch of biology which studies the
microscopic anatomy of biological tissues.
●Histology is the microscopic counterpart to gross anatomy,
which looks at larger structures visible without a
microscope.
1. Histopathological techniques
- Histopathological examination studies tissues under the
microscope.
- During this study, the pathologist looks for abnormal
structures in the tissue.
- Tissues for Histopathological examination are obtained by
biopsy.
- Biopsy is a tissue sample from a living person to identify
the disease.
- Biopsy can be either incisional or excisional.

NB. - Pathologic changes can be recognised with the


naked eye (gross or macroscopic changes) or can be
studied by microscopic examination of tissues.
2. Cytopathologic techniques
►Cytopathology is the study of cells from various body
sites to determine the cause or nature of disease.
►Main application:
- Screening for the early detection of asymptomatic cancer
- Diagnosis of symptomatic cancer
- Surveillance of patients treated for cancer
►Methods:
- Fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC)
- Exfoliative cytology
- Abrasive cytology
Fine needle aspiration cytology
short notes
 In FNAC, cells are obtained by aspirating the diseased organ using a very
thin needle under negative pressure.

 Virtually any organ or tissue can be sampled by fine-needle aspiration.

 The aspirated cells are then stained & are studied under the microscope.

 -Superficial organs (e.g. thyroid, breast, lymph nodes, skin and soft
tissues) can be easily aspirated.

 -Deep organs, such as the lung, mediastinum, liver, pancreas, kidney,


adrenal gland, and retroperitoneal are aspirated with guidance by
fluoroscopy, ultrasound or CT scan.

 FNAC is cheap, fast, & accurate in diagnosing many diseases.


Sample Q & A→ Outlining the MAIN applications of cytology
 The main applications of cytology include the following:
⸎1. Screening for the early detection of asymptomatic cancer
 =For example, the examination of scrapings from cervix for early
detection and prevention of cervical cancer.
⸎2. Diagnosis of symptomatic cancer
 Cytopathology may be used alone or in conjunction with other modalities to
diagnose tumors revealed by physical or radiological examinations.
 It can be used in the diagnosis of cysts, inflammatory conditions and
infections of various organs.
 3. Surveillance of patients treated for cancer
 For some types of cancers, cytology is the most feasible method of
surveillance to detect recurrence.
 =The best example is periodic urine cytology to monitor the
recurrence of cancer of the urinary tract.
3. Haematological examination
- This is a method by which abnormalities of the cells of the
blood and their precursors in the bone marrow are
investigated to diagnose the different kinds of anemia &
leukemia.

4. Immunohistochemistry
- This is a method used to detect a specific antigen in the
tissue in order to identify the type of disease.

5. Microbiological examination
- This is a method by which body fluids, excised tissue, etc.
are examined by microscopical, cultural and serological
techniques to identify micro-organisms responsible for
many diseases.
6. Biochemical examination
- This is a method by which the metabolic disturbances of disease are
investigated by assay of various normal and abnormal compounds in
the blood, urine, etc.

7. Clinical genetics (cytogenetics)


- This is a method in which inherited chromosomal abnormalities in
the germ cells or acquired chromosomal abnormalities in somatic
cells are investigated using the techniques of molecular biology.

8. Molecular techniques
- Different molecular techniques such as fluorescent in situ
hybridization, Southern blot, etc.
- can be used to detect genetic diseases.

9. Autopsy
- Autopsy is examination of the dead body to identify the cause of
death. This can be for forensic or clinical purposes.

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