CHAPTER II

ATHER BASICS (METEOROLOGY): ATMOSPHERIC WATE

THE ATMOSPHERE: GENERAL CIRCULATION:
COMPOSITION, GENERAL THERMAL CIRCULATION AND
CHARACTERISTICS AND EARTH'S ROTATION
STABILITY

TEMPERATURE: GEOGRAPHIC
DISTRIBUTION, TIME VARIATION AND
INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT
CLOUD PHYSICS:
NUCLEATION, GROWTH
AND DISTRIBUTION
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND WIND
VELOCITY

SOLAR RADIATION AND

EARTH'S ENERGY HUMIDITY: GEOGRAPHIC
BALANCE DISTRIBUTION, TIME VARIATION
AND MEASUREMENT
 Meteorology
It is the scientific study of the
atmosphere and of atmospheric
conditions, especially as they
relate to weather and weather
forecast.
 Meteorology
Weather Climate
Describes short term state of Describes long term variation
the atmosphere of weather at a certain location
over a specific time interval
 THE ATMOSPHERE:
COMPOSITION, GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND
STABILITY
 Atmosphere

One of the four components of the

earth's ecosystem, it is a band of gases
enveloping the Earth's surface. 99% of
its mass is concentrated within 20 miles
of the Earth's surface.
 Why is Atmosphere
important?

Atmosphere is important
because it contains oxygen so
we can live and it protect us
from sun's damaging rays.
Atmospheric Composition

Atmosphere is composed of
78.08% of nitrogen (N), 20.95%
of oxygen (O), and 0.93% of
argon (Ar) these gases are called
permanent gases.
Layers of the Atmosphere
 Atmosphere General
Characteristics
vThe lower atmosphere contains
varying amounts of water vapor,
which determine its humidity.

vCondensation and sublimation within

the atmosphere cause cloud or fog,
and the resulting liquid water droplets
or ice crystals may precipitate to the
ground as rain, sleet, snow, hail, dew,
or frost.
 Atmosphere General
Characteristics

vBecause of the pull of gravity, the

density of the atmosphere and the
pressure exerted by air molecules are
greatest near the earth's surface.
 Five Characteristics that
influence the Atmosphere
Temperature
Pressure - Atmospheric pressure
Humidity
Cloudiness
Winds
 TEMPERATURE
Temperature measures heat, average
kinetic energy of molecules, and
weather report give air temperature at
ground level. 3 major units of
temperature are Fahrenheit (F),
Celsius (C), and Kelvin (K).
 Pressure - Atmospheric
pressure
it is the force per unit area that is
always applied perpendicularly to a
surface by the surrounding gas. It is
determined by a planet's gravitational
force in combination with the total
mass of a column of gas above a
location. On Earth, units of air pressure
are based on the internationally
recognized standard atmosphere
(atm), which is defined as 101,325 Pa
(760 Torr or 14.696 psi).
 Humidity
is the amount of water vapor in the air.
Water vapor is the gaseous state of
water and is invisible. Indicates the
likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog.
Higher humidity reduces the
effectiveness of sweating in cooling the
body by reducing the rate of
evaporation of moisture from the skin.
 Cloudiness

Clouds are one of the most obvious and

influential features of Earth's climate
system.
 Winds

Wind is the flow of gases on a large

scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind
consists of the bulk movement of air.
 Atmospheric Stability

Atmospheric stability is a measure of

the atmosphere's tendency to
encourage vertical motion, and
vertical motion is directly correlated
to different types of weather system
and their severity. In unstable
conditions, a lifted parcel of air will
be warmer than the surrounding air at
altitude.
 Atmospheric Stability

A condition of equilibrium.

As the parcel rises, it will adiabatically

expand and cool adiabatic - a process
where the parcel temperature changes
due to an expansion or compression, no
heat is added or taken away from the
parcel.
How do we assess stability?
We must compare the parcel's temperature T,
with the temperature of the surrounding
environment Te.
Tp > Te the parcel is positively buoyant, it is less
dense and will rise.

Tp < Te the parcel is negatively buoyant, it is

more dense and will sink.

Tp = Te the parcel is neutrally buoyant, it

will not rise or sink.
 INTRODUCTION TO
CLOUD PHYSICS:
NUCLEATION, GROWTH
AND DISTRIBUTION
 Cloud Physics

It is the study of physical process that

leads to the formation, growth, and
precipitation of clouds.
 Nucleation

It is the first step in the formation of

either a new thermodynamic phase or a
new structure via self-assembly or self-
organization.
 Cloud Formation
Cloud is a thick mass of suspended water drops
or ice crystals.

Sunlight causes water to evaporate into the

atmosphere. This air containing the water vapor
is heated at the surface of the earth and rises.
As the air rises, it cools and the water vapor
condenses on some form of particulate matter
such as dust, ash, or smoke to form clouds.
Clouds are formed when water vapour is cooled
below the dew point during its upward
movement. The particulate matter is called
Condensation Nuclei.
 Cloud Formation

Dew Point - the temperature at which

water vapour is turned into water
 Cloud Formation
Lifting by Convection - occurs when the
surface is heated and a surface parcel becomes
warmer than the environment.

Lifting by Convergence - Convergence exists

when there is a horizontal net inflow into a region.
The air has nowhere else to go so, when air
converges along the surface, it is forced to rise.

Lifting due to Topography - occurs when air is

confronted by a sudden increase in the vertical
topography of the Earth. When air comes across a
mountain, it is lifted up and over, cooling as it is
rising.
 Cloud Formation
Lifting along frontal boundaries:

Cold front - A colder, denser air mass lifts the warm,

moist air ahead of it. As the warm air rises, it cools
and condenses, producing clouds and
precipitation. The steep slope of the cold front
leads to more vigorous rising motion.

Warm front - A warmer, less dense air mass rises up

and over the cold air ahead of the warm front Air
rises, cools and condenses. Warm fronts have
gentler slopes and move slower than cold fronts.
 Theories to explain the
growth of a Cloud Element
1) Ice Crystal Process - involves the presence of ice
crystals in a super cooled water cloud (-15 C).

2) Coalescence Process - based on the difference in

fall velocities and consequent collisions to be
expected between cloud elements of different sizes.
 SOLAR RADIATION AND
EARTH'S ENERGY BALANCE
 The Sun
The source of energy that drives the climate
system.

The star located at the center of our planetary

system, at a distance of about 150 x 106
kilometers from Earth. With a surface
temperature of 5780 K.

A thermonuclear fusion reaction converts the

hydrogen into helium releasing huge amounts
of energy.
 Radiation
The transfer of energy through electromagnetic
waves

The main range of solar radiation includes

ultraviolet radiation (UV, 0.001-0.4 µm),
visible radiation (light, 0.4-0.7 µm), and
infrared radiation (IR, 0.7-100 µm).
 Radiation
Scattering
Solar radiation can be scattered by atmosphere:
- Deflected off a molecule, cloud droplet, or
particle
- May go up toward space, or down toward
Earth
- Scattering most prevalent in blue wavelengths
- Thus, clear, blue skies
- Some solar radiation goes directly to surface
- Called transmission
- Solar radiation arrives as 0.3µm to 3µm
wavelengths
- This is shortwave radiation
 INSOLATION
Daily insolation - average radiation total in 24 hours

Sun angle-higher sun angle greater Insolation

Length of day-higher latitudes get long summer days

Annual Insolation - average radiation total for a year.

- Also depends on sun angle and length of day
- Both of these determined by latitude
- So, latitude determines annual insolation
 Albedo
-reflectivity of a planet
-proportion of shortwave radiation reflected

Examples:
-Snowfield 0.45-0.85
-Black pavement 0.03
-Clouds 0.30-0.60
-Water (calm, high angle 0.02), (low angle
0.80)
-Average for Earth and atmosphere 0.29-0.34
 Incoming Solar Radiation
SWdn = S cos θ

Reflected Solar Radiation

SWup = SWdn α
Where:
S is solar constant S = 1366 Watts/m²
θ is solar zenith angle, which is the angle between the local
zenith and the line of line of sight to the sun.
α is albedo, which is the ratio of reflected flux density to
incident flux density, referenced to some surface
 Incoming and Surface
emitted Long wave Radiation
Blackbody

It is purely hypothetical bodies that absorb and emit

the maximum radiation at all wavelengths
 Incoming and Surface
emitted Long wave Radiation

All heated objects must emit electromagnetic radiation,

particularly so if they are surrounded by empty space.
This radiation is referred to as outgoing. As long as the
incoming radiative flux is larger than the outgoing, the
radiated object will continue to warm, and its
temperature will continue to increase.
 Incoming and Surface
emitted Long wave Radiation
This in turn will result in an increase in the outgoing
radiation (according to the Stefan-Boltzman law the
outgoing radiation increases faster than the
temperature). At some point the object will emit as
much radiation as the amount incoming and a
radiative equilibrium (or balance) will be reached.
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
States that radiation emitted from a blackbody is a
function only of temperature .

I=sT4

Where:
I is the intensity of the radiation,
T is the temperature in K, and
s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, (5.67 x 10-
8
W m-² K-4)
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

- So, hotter surface emits more energy than

colder surface (double T, 16x more radiation)
- Earth (290K)=401 Wm-2, Sun (6000K)-7.3 x
106 Wm-2. So Isun >> learth
- Incoming LW (air-emitted): LWdn = sTair
- Surface emitted LW: LWup=sTs4
 Net longwave radiation
(LWdn - LWup = sTair4-sTs4)

Is generally small because air temperature is often

close to surface temperature

Is generally smaller than net shortwave radiation

even when air temperature is not close to surface
temperature

Important during the night when there is no

shortwave radiation
GENERAL CIRCULATION:
THERMAL CIRCULATION
AND EARTH'S ROTATION
 GENERAL CIRCULATION:
THERMAL CIRCULATION AND
EARTH'S ROTATION

Climate and general circulation of

the atmosphere are related to:

Energy Balance
Transport Processes
The three-cell model
Energy Balance
- Related to the balance of the incoming solar
radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation
emitted by the earth. Over the globe, the energy
balance is nearly balanced when averaged over
a year (incoming equals outgoing).

- When averaged over a latitude band,

incoming radiation is a surplus in the tropics
and deficit of radiation is found in the Polar
Regions due to the outgoing terrestrial radiation
being larger than the absorbed solar radiation.
Energy Balance
Transport Process

To compensate for the surplus and deficit of

radiation in different regions of the globe,
atmospheric and oceanic transport processes
distribute the energy equally around the earth.
This transport is accomplished by atmospheric
winds and ocean currents.
Three Cell Model

This model represents the average

circulation of the atmosphere and is
used to describe the atmospheric
transport of energy.
 Thermal and three-cell
circulation

You know equatorial areas receive more direct solar

radiation than do polar areas. Also, in the lower
latitudes, the ratio of land to water is low. Since water
loses heat slowly, more heat is received than lost
through radiation. In the polar regions, just the opposite
is true. The land to water ratio is high and more heat is
lost due to radiation than is received.
 Thermal and three-cell
circulation
Since the Tropics do not become
progressively hotter and polar regions
colder, there must be a transfer of heat
between the two regions or a general
circulation. The mechanism that sets up
Earth's general circulation pattern is the
latitudinal transfer of heat.
 Thermal circulation
If the Earth's surface were smooth, uniform,
and stationary, atmospheric circulation
would be very simple. The atmosphere
would act as a contained fluid and
movements within this fluid would be the
convective currents caused by temperature
and density differences. The latitudinal
transfer of heat would result in a single
circulation cell. Unequal heating is the main
driving mechanism responsible for the
Earth's atmospheric circulations.
 Three-cell circulation

This theory of circulation best describes the

Earth's general circulation because It
considers effects of coriolis force due to the
Earth's rotation.
 Hadley Cell

George Hadley, an English meteorologist,

theorized this first circulation cell in 1735.
The Hadley cell is the strongest of the three
cells of circulation and is formed as warm
air rises above the Equator and starts to
flow northward.
 Polar Cell

This is the northernmost cell of circulation

and its mean position is between 60°N and
the North Pole. At the pole, cold, dense air
descends, causing an area of subsidence and
high pressure. As the air sinks, it begins
spreading southward.
 Ferrel Cell

The mid-latitude circulation cell between

the Polar cell and the Hadley cell is called
the Ferrel cell. This cell is named after
William Ferrel, a Nashville school who first
proposed its existence.
 THE TROPICAL HADLEY
CIRCULATION

Persistent net radiational heating of the

tropical earth surface leads to widespread
occurrence of static instability of the
tropical atmosphere. Large amounts of
evaporation from the sun-warmed oceans
also assures ample supplies of water vapor
in the air.
 THE TROPICAL HADLEY
CIRCULATION

There is, consequently, a large scale,

persistent band of organized convection
throughout the tropics called the Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The
ITCZ extends along a long band in the deep
tropics, and can often be traced around the
whole globe. This persistent band of
organized convection draws air into it allow
levels from latitudes north and south of its
location.
 TEMPERATURE: GEOGRAPHIC
DISTRIBUTION, TIME VARIATION
AND MEASUREMENT
 Geographic distribution
If the Earth was a homogeneous body
without the present land/ocean
distribution, its temperature
distribution would be strictly
latitudinal. However, the Earth is
more complex than this being
composed of a mosaic of land and
water. This mosaic causes latitudinal
zonation of temperature to be
disrupted spatially.
Figure 1: Simple latitudinal zonation of temperature.
 Geographic distribution
The following two factors are important in
influencing the distribution of temperature on the
Earth's surface:

• The latitude of the location determines how

much solar radiation is received. Latitude
influences the angle of incidence and duration
of daylength.

• Surface properties - surfaces with high albedo

absorb less incident radiation. In general, land
absorbs less insolation that water because of its
lighter color. Also, even if two surfaces have the
same albedo, a surface's specific heat
Table 1: Specific Heat of Various Substances. determines the amount of heat energy required
for a specific rise in temperature per unit mass
 Geographic distribution
Other factors influencing the way land
and water surfaces heat and cool
include:
• Solar radiation warms an extensive
layer in water, on land just the
immediate surface is heated.
• Water is easily mixed by the
process of convection.
• Evaporation of water removes
energy from water's surface
Figure 1: Simple latitudinal zonation of temperature.
 Figure 2: Mean January air temperature for the Earth's surface, 1959- (Source of Original Modified Image:
Climate Lab Section of the mental Change Research Group, Department of Geography, University of Oregon-
Global Climate Animations).
Figure 3: Mean July air temperature for the Earth's surface, 1959-1997. (Source of Original Modified Image:
Climate Lab Section of the Environmental Change Research Group, Department of Geography, University of
Oregon - Global Climate Animations).
 TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS
Diurnal Variation

Is the change in temperature from day

to night brought about by the daily
rotation of the Earth? The Earth
receives heat during the day by solar
radiation and warms up. During the
night, the Earth loses energy and cools
down even until sunrise.
 TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS
SEASONAL VARIATION

Is the change in temperature due to seasonal

variation of the angle of incident solar
radiation between hemispheres brought about
by the tilting of the Earth's axis during its
orbit around the sun? The Northern
Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and
August because it receives more solar energy
than does the Southern Hemisphere. During
December, January, and February, the
opposite is true; the Southern Hemisphere
receives more solar energy and is warmer.
 TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS
VARIATION WITH LATITUDE

Is the change in temperature due to the

variation in the angle of incident solar
radiation in contact with the geographical
surface profile of the Earth. Since the Earth is
essentially spherical, the sun is more nearly
overhead in equatorial regions than at higher
latitudes. Equatorial regions, therefore,
receive the most radiant energy and are
warmest.
 TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS
VARIATIONS WITH
TOPOGRAPHY

Is the change in temperature not related to

movement or shape of the earth are
temperature variations induced by water and
terrain. Water absorbs and radiates energy
with less temperature change than does land.
Large, deep water bodies tend to minimize
temperature changes, while continents favor
large changes.
 TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS
VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

Temperature varies as one move vertically

upward from the Earth's surface. Temperature
normally decreases with increasing altitude
throughout the troposphere. This decrease of
temperature with altitude is defined as lapse
rate. An increase in temperature with altitude
is defined as an inversion, ie., lapse rate is
inverted.
 Temperature Measurement
Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be calibrated to a variety of
temperature scales:

 · Celsius scale -measure temperature using the Celsius

scale
· Kelvin scale - measure thermodynamics temperature
· Rankine scale -a shifted Fahrenheit scale, used when
working in thermodynamic related disciplines such as
combustion.
 Temperature Measurement
Temperature is measured by the following types of thermometers:


• Standard Thermometer
• Thermograph
• Minimum and Maximum Thermometer
Temperature Measurement
Standard Thermometer

A standard thermometer is a device used to

measure temperature. It typically consists of a
narrow, sealed glass tube containing a liquid
(such as mercury or alcohol) that expands or
contracts with changes in temperature.
Temperature Measurement
Minimum-Maximum Thermometer

A minimum and maximum thermometer,

often referred to as a min-max thermometer,
is a specialized device designed to record and
display the lowest and highest temperatures
experienced over a specific period.
 Global Temperature
The global temperature records and measurements are typically acquired using the satellite or ground
instrumental temperature measurements, the usually compiled using a database or c The true daily mean,
obtained from a thermograph, is approximated by the mean of 24 hourly readings (which is not the same
as the mean of the daily minimum and maximum readings). The world's average surface air temperature
is about 15°C.
Statistical Treatment of Temperature
Mean Daily Temperature (Tm) - average of daily maximum and minimum
temperature
Tm =1/2(Tmax+Tmin)
Nominal Daily Temperature (Tn) - average daily mean temperature for a
given date over a specific 30-year period
Tn=∑Tm/n
n=no. of days

Daily Range in Temperature (Tr) - the difference between the highest and
lowest temperature
Tr=Tmax – Tmin
Statistical Treatment of Temperature

Mean Monthly Temperature (TMm) - average of the mean monthly maximum

and minimum temperature
TMm = ∑Tm/n
n= no. of months

Mean Annual temperature (TAm) - average of monthly means for the year
TAm= ∑TMm/12
 Statistical Treatment of Temperature
Sample problem:

Determine the mean monthly temperature of the following data:

Min. Temp. °C Max. Temp. C Ave. Temp.
January 2 28.5 33.2 = 30.85
February 8 33.2 29.8 = 31.50
March 6 36.2 28.7 =32.45
April 10 29.7 30.8 =30.25
May 15 34.8 28.0 = 31.40
 ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE AND WIND
VELOCITY
 Atmospheric pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by
the air molecules in Earth's atmosphere on a
given area. It decreases with altitude and
varies with weather conditions

• The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a

unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa
(1.01325 bar), equivalent to 760 mmHg
(torr), 29.92 inHg and 14.696 psi.
 Barometer
• A barometer is a device used to measure
atmospheric pressure. It typically consists of
a sealed chamber filled with mercury or an
alternative liquid, and a column of this
liquid moves up or down based on changes
in atmospheric pressure
• There are 2 types of barometer:
1. Mercury Barometer
2. Aneroid Barometer
 Aneroid Barometer

• An aneroid barometer is a device used to

measure atmospheric pressure without the
use of liquids. Instead of a liquid-filled tube,
it employs a sealed metal chamber (aneroid
cell) that expands or contracts with changes
in atmospheric pressure
 Mercury Barometer

• A mercury barometer is a device used to

measure atmospheric pressure. It consists of
a vertical glass tube filled with mercury,
inverted into a mercury-filled reservoir. The
atmospheric pressure exerts force on the
mercury in the reservoir, causing it to rise in
the tube
 Wind Velocity
• Wind velocity refers to the speed at which air is
moving in the atmosphere. It is typically
measured in units like meters per second (m/s),
kilometers per hour (km/h), or miles per hour
(mph).
• Wind velocity is a crucial component in
understanding weather patterns, and it is
commonly depicted on weather reports and
maps. The intensity of wind can range from calm
to strong, with varying effects on the
environment.
 What is Wind?
• Wind is the movement of air in the Earth's
atmosphere, primarily caused by the uneven
heating of the planet's surface by the sun. As the
sun heats the Earth, different regions absorb and
release heat at varying rates, creating
temperature and pressure differences.
• Air moves from high-pressure areas to low-
pressure areas, resulting in the phenomenon we
perceive as wind. The speed and direction of the
wind are influenced by factors such as
geography, temperature gradients, and the Earth's
rotation.
• In meteorology, winds are often referred to
according to their strength, and the direction
from which the wind is blowing.
 Types of Wind
1. Planetary Winds
2. Trade Winds
3. The Westerlies
4. Polar Easterlies
5. Periodic Winds
6. Local Winds
 Planetary Winds
Planetary winds, also known as
global winds, are large-scale wind
patterns that circulate around the
Earth. These winds are driven by the
unequal heating of the Earth's
surface by the sun, leading to
variations in temperature and
pressure.
 Trade Winds
These are steady easterly winds that
flow from the subtropical high-
pressure belts (around 30 degrees
latitude) towards the equator. In the
Northern Hemisphere, trade winds
blow from the northeast, while in the
Southern Hemisphere, they come
from the southeast.
 The Westerlies
Found between 30 to 60 degrees
latitude in both hemispheres, the
westerlies move from the west
towards the east. In the Northern
Hemisphere, they are southwest
winds, while in the Southern
Hemisphere, they are northwest
winds.
 Polar Easterlies
These winds originate from high-
pressure polar regions (around 60
degrees latitude) and flow towards
lower pressure areas. In the
Northern Hemisphere, polar
easterlies blow from the east, and in
the Southern Hemisphere, they come
from the east as well.
 Periodic Winds
Periodic wind refers to the recurring
patterns of wind movement that
occur over specific time intervals.
These patterns are often associated
with natural phenomena like seasons
or daily temperature changes.
There are 4 types of Periodic Winds:
• Monsoon Winds
• Land Breeze
• Sea Breeze
• Mountain and Valley Breezes
 Periodic Winds
Monsoon Winds

Monsoon winds are seasonal wind

patterns that bring distinctive wet
and dry periods to certain regions.
These winds are primarily associated
with the Indian subcontinent, but
similar phenomena occur in other
parts of the world.
 Periodic Winds

Land and Sea Breeze

Land and sea breezes are local wind

patterns influenced by the
temperature differences between
land and water
 Periodic Winds

Mountain and Valley Breeze

Mountain and valley breezes are

local wind patterns influenced by the
topography of mountainous regions.
 Properties of Wind
Wind is the movement of air horizontally across the Earth's surface. Some key properties of
wind include:

Direction: Wind is described by the direction from which it originates. For example, a north
wind blows from the north to the south.

Speed: Wind speed is the rate at which air moves. It is typically measured in units like
meters per second (m/s) or miles per hour (mph).

Causes: Wind is primarily caused by differences in air pressure. Air moves from areas of
high pressure to low pressure, creating wind as it seeks to equalize pressure imbalances.

Global Wind Patterns: There are prevailing wind patterns on Earth, such as the trade
winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies, which are influenced by the rotation of the Earth and
the distribution of heat.
 Measuring Devices/Instruments
Wind measuring devices are instruments designed to quantify the speed and direction of
wind. These are the devices commonly used for this purpose:

Anemometer: An anemometer is a device used to measure the speed or velocity of the

wind.

Wind Vane: A wind vane, also known as a weather vane or wind indicator, is a simple
instrument used to determine the direction from which the wind is blowing.

Anemograph: An anemograph is an instrument designed to continuously record and

display the speed and direction of wind over a specific period.

Aerovane: An aerovane is a device used to measure wind direction and speed.

Measuring Devices/Instruments

Anemometer
Measuring Devices/Instruments

Wind Vane
Measuring Devices/Instruments

Anemograph
Measuring Devices/Instruments

Aerovane
Measuring Devices/Instruments

Aerovane
 Wind Profile
The wind profile refers to the change in wind speed and direction
with increasing altitude above the Earth's surface.
Wind speed is reduced and direction deflected in the lower layers
of the atmosphere because of friction produced by trees,
buildings and other obstacles.
General Equation in Friction Layer:

• Power Law Profile • Logarithmic Velocity Profile

 Wind Profile
• Power Law Profile

Where:
V = observe wind velocity at a given height
z = observation height
k = Von Karman constant (k = 0.40)
z0 = roughness length (where V=0)
V* = friction velocity
 Wind Profile
• Logarithmic Velocity Profile

Where:
V* = friction velocity
V= wind speed at height z
K = von karmann constant k=0.40
Zo = Roughness length (where V=0)
Z = observation height
Sample Problems
Sample Problems
 Sample Problems

3. Anemometer at 10m and 100m record wind speeds of 50 and 75 km/h

respectively. Determine the exponent “k” in the power law profile

4. Given a wind speed of 5.0 m/s at 2m above the ground and a

roughness length of 0.80 cm. Compute the wind speed in m/s at 0.50 m.
 HUMIDITY: GEOGRAPHIC
DISTRIBUTION, TIME VARIATION
AND MEASUREMENT
 Humidity
• is a term for the amount of water vapor in the air,
and can refer to any one several measurements of
humidity.

• Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the

atmosphere. Water vapor is the invisible presence
of water in its gaseous state. Humidity is a
significant aspect of the atmosphere because it
affects the weather and the climate.

• In meteorology, humidity indicates the likelihood

of precipitation, dew, or fog. High relative
humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in
cooling the body by reducing the rate of
evaporation of moisture from the skin. This effect
is calculated in a heat index table, used during
summer weather.
 Humidity

There are three main types of humidity:

• Absolute humidity
• Relative humidity
• Specific humidity

There are also other factors that affect humidity:

• Vapor Pressure
• Saturation Vapor Pressure
 Absolute Humidity
• Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of water
vapor present in a unit volume of air, typically
expressed in grams of water vapor per cubic meter
(g/m³) or other mass or volume units. It is a direct
measure of the total moisture content in the air and is
not influenced by changes in air temperature.

• Absolute humidity is important in various fields such

as meteorology, where it helps characterize the
moisture content in the atmosphere. Unlike relative
humidity, which is expressed as a percentage and is
dependent on temperature, absolute humidity provides
a more straightforward measure of the actual water
vapor concentration.
 Absolute Humidity

Absolute humidity (AH) can be calculated as,

where:
m (watervapor) = is the mass of the water vapor
V(net) = is the volume of air.
 Relative Humidity
• Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water
vapor present in the air compared to the maximum
amount the air could hold at a specific temperature. It
is expressed as a percentage.
• When the air is saturated with moisture, the relative
humidity is 100%, indicating that the air is holding
the maximum amount of water vapor possible at that
temperature. Changes in temperature or the addition
of water vapor can affect relative humidity. High
relative humidity means the air is close to being
saturated, while low relative humidity indicates drier
air.
 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity (RH) can be calculated as,

where:
e = Actual Water Vapor Content
e* = Saturation Water Vapor Content at the Current
Temperature
 Specific Humidity
• Specific humidity is a measure of the actual amount of
water vapor present in a unit mass of air. It is typically
expressed as grams of water vapor per kilogram of air.
Unlike relative humidity, which is a ratio expressed as
a percentage and depends on the air temperature,
specific humidity is an absolute measure and remains
constant regardless of temperature changes.
 Specific Humidity

Specific humidity (SH) can be calculated as,

where:
mv = is the mass of water vapor,
ma = is the total mass of moist air

The result is typically expressed in grams of water vapor per

kilogram of air (g/kg) or in other equivalent units.
 Vapor Pressure
• Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor
when it is in equilibrium with its condensed (liquid or
solid) phase in a closed system. It is a measure of the
tendency of molecules in a liquid to escape into the
vapor phase.

• The vapor pressure increases with temperature

because higher temperatures provide more energy to
the molecules, allowing them to transition from the
liquid to the vapor phase.
 Vapor Pressure

Specific humidity (SH) can be calculated as,

where:
Pa = is the pressure of moist air,
Pd = is the pressure of dry air
 Saturation Vapor Pressure

• Saturation vapor pressure refers to the maximum

amount of water vapor that air can hold at a particular
temperature. It is a critical concept in meteorology
and is influenced by the temperature of the air.
Warmer air has a higher capacity to hold water vapor
than cooler air
 Saturation Vapor Pressure
Specific humidity (SH) can be calculated in two ways,
• Bosen Formula

Where:
es = in mbars
T = Temperature in Celsius
• Teten’s Equation

Where:
es = in Pa
T = Temperature in Celsius
Properties of Water Vapor
Properties of Water Vapor
Properties of Water Vapor
Properties of Water Vapor
Properties of Water Vapor
Properties of Water Vapor
 Sample Problems

1. Find the saturation values of specific humidity,

and absolute humidity for air of temperature 0°C and
pressure 50 kPa.

2. Find the relative humidity for air of T = 20°C and e

THANK YOU