MINERALS

Key to understanding minerals

• Minerals account to 4% of bodies total
weight, they are found in all body tissues and
fluids.
• Major minerals are present in the body in
amounts greater than 5g (equivalent to 1
teaspoon). Ca P, Mg, S, Na, and Chloride are
major minerals.
 Understanding Minerals
•
Inorganic substances that come from the
earth’s crust.
• Help chemical reactions in the body occur,
make up bones and teeth, and are found in
soft tissues and body fluids.
• About 4% of your body is made of minerals.
Problems are often associated with too much
or too little in the diet.
 General chemistry
• Unlike the energy nutrients and vitamins,
minerals are inorganic elements that originate
from the earths crust, not from plants or animals,
• Minerals don’t undergo digestion nor are they
broken down or rearranged during metabolism.
Although they combine with other elements to
form salts eg sodium chloride or with organic
compounds eg iron in hemoglobin they always
retain their chemical identities
 General functions
• Provide structure to the body tissues. Ca, P,
Mg, and fluorine provide structure to the
bones and teeth.
• Fluid balance: The volume of water in the
body and its distribution among the body
compartments are determined largely by the
concentrations of solutes in solution.
• Fluid balance is influenced by Na,k,Cl, and all
the major minerals(Ca, P, Mg)
 Acid - base balance
• This term refers to the maintenance of the body's
concentration of hydrogen ions. NaoH and
Sodium bicarbonate are part of the carbonic acid
bicarbonate system that regulates the PH of blood
• Nerve cell transmission and muscle contraction:
Exchange of Na and K nerve across cell membranes
causes the transmission of nerve cell impulses.
• Ca stimulates muscles to contract.
• Na, K, and Mg are involved in in muscle relaxation
• Vitamin, enzyme and hormone activity:
Minerals help to regulate body process
through their role in activation of vitamins,
enzymes, and hormones.
 Mineral balance
The body has several mechanisms by which it
maintains mineral balance depending on the
mineral involved such as:
• Releasing minerals from storage for
redistribution: Some minerals can be released
from storage and redistributed which is what
happens when Ca is released from bones to
restore normal serum Ca levels.
• Altering rate of absorption: For example, normally only
about 10% of the iron consumed is absorbed but the
rate increases to 50% when the body is deficient in Fe.
• Altering rate of excretion: Virtually all of the sodium
consumed in the diet is absorbed; the only way the body
can rid itself of excess sodium is to increase urinary Na
excretion.
• For most people the higher the intake of Na, the greater
the amount of Na excreted in the urine. Excess K is also
excreted in the urine.
 Mineral toxicities
• Minerals that are easily excreted , such as Na
and K , do not accumulate to toxic levels in the
body.
• Stored minerals can produce toxicity
symptoms when intake is excessive, but
excessive intake is not likely to occur from
eating a balanced diet
• Instead, mineral toxicity is related to
excessive use of mineral supplements,
environmental or industrial exposure, human
errors in commercial food processing or
alterations in metabolism
 Mineral interactions
• Mineral balance is significantly influenced by
hundreds of interactions that occur among
minerals and between minerals and other
dietary components.
• For instance, caffein promotes Ca excretion,
whereas vit D and lactose promote its
absorption.
 Sources of minerals
• Generally, un refined or un processed foods
have more minerals than refined foods, Trace
mineral content varies with the content of soil
from which the food originates.
• Processed foods are high in Na and chloride.
• Drinking water contains varying amounts of
Ca, mg and other minerals.
 Major electrolytes
• Na, chloride and K are major minerals as well
as major electrolytes in the body.
• They are electrolytes because they carry
electrical charges when they are dissolved in
solution.
 Classification of Minerals

Minerals can be classified as major minerals or

trace minerals.
Major minerals are found in amounts of 5 grams
or more in the body.
Trace minerals are found in much smaller
amounts of less than 5 grams.
There are 21 minerals identified as important to
normal health.
 Major Minerals
• The major minerals include calcium,
phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, chloride,
potassium, and sulfur.
Minerals
• Trace Minerals :Trace minerals include iron,
zinc, copper, iodine, fluoride, selenium,
chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and
cobalt.
 COPPER(Cu)
• Is distributed in muscles, liver, brain, bones,
kidneys and blood.
• Cu is a component of several enzymes
involved in hemoglobin synthesis, collagen
formation, wound healing and maintenance
of nerve fibers.
• Cu also helps cells to use Fe and plays a role
in energy metabolism.
 Manganese
• Mn toxicity is well known occupational hazard
for miners who inhale Mn dust over prolonged
period over time, leading to central nervous
system abnormalities.
• There is some evidence to suggest that high
Mn intake from drinking water, which may be
more bioavailable than Mn in food, also
produces neuromotor deficits similar to
Parkinson's disease
 Molybdenum
• Molbdenum plays a role in RBC synthesis and
is a component of several enzymes.
• Dietary deficiencies and toxicities are
unknown
 Chromium
• Enhances the action of the hormone insulin
to help regulate blood glucose and impaired
insulin response.
• Un refined foods are higher in chromium than
processed foods
• NB: Excess Zn intake has the potential to
reduce Cu deficiency by impairing its
absorption, but Cu deficiency is rare.
• Supplements ,not food may cause Cu toxicity,
as do some genetic disorders.
 Iron(Fe)

• 2/3 of the body's 3to 5g of Fe is contained in

the heme portion of hemoglobin
• Iron is also found in transferrins, the
transport carrier of Fe and in enzyme systems
that are active in energy metabolism
• Ferritin the storage form of Fe is located in
the liver, bone marrow and spleen
 Iron(Fe)
• Iron Daily Intake: Male 11 mg/d;
• Female 15 mg/d A trace mineral.
Carries oxygen throughout the body.
• Allows body to release energy from food. Sources
include clams, raisins, tofu, beef, baked potato,
shrimp, spinach, and tuna.
• Fortified breakfast cereals are also a good source.
• Too little causes anemia: weakness, headaches,
reduce immune system.
• Too much injures the liver (iron overload).
 Fe in foods exists in two forms:
• Heme Fe is found in meat, fish and poultry
and nonheme Fe found in plants such as
grains, vegetables, legumes and nuts.
• The majority of Fe in diet is nonheme Fe
 Iodine

• Is found in muscles, thyroid gland, skin the

skeleton, endocrine tissues and blood
stream.
• Essential component of thyroxine (T4) and
Triiodothyronine (T3), the thyroid hormones
responsible for regulating metabolic rate,
body temperature, reproductive growth,
growth, synthesis of blood cells and nerve
and muscle function.
• In Uganda, the population uses iodized salt
making it the biggest source of iodine in
Ugandan diet.
• RDA for Iodine is easily met with1/2 teaspoon
of iodized salt daily.
• Sources: Seafood is naturally high in iodine
derived from ocean water, milk, processed
food due to addition of salt.
 Goitrogens
• : Thyroid antagonists found in cruciferous
vegetables (eg cabbages, cauliflower,
broccoli) , soybeans and sweetpotatoes
 Selenium

• A component of group of enzymes called

glutathione peroxidase that functions as
antioxidants to disarm free radicals produced
during normal oxygen metabolism.
• Selenium is also essential for normal immune
system and thyroid gland activity.
• Sources: Sea foods
 Calcium
Calcium Daily Intake—1300 mg/d a major
minerals.
99% of Ca is found in bones and teeth, where it
combines with P, Mg and other minerals to
provide rigidity and structure.
Bones serve as a reservoir for Ca that readily
releases it when serum levels drop; this helps
to maintain blood levels within normal limits
when Ca intake is inadequate.
 Calcium (Ca2+)
• Most abundant mineral in body!
• Divalent Cation (has a + 2!)
• 99% of body's Ca2+ located in bones and teeth.

Some of the Top Foods for Calcium!

Cheese (Mozzarella) - 961mg (95% DV)
Milk & Yogurt - 125mg (13% and 49% DV)
Dark Leafy Greens (Watercress, Kale) - 120mg (12% DV)
Cabbage (Bok Choy) - 105mg (11% DV)
 Almonds - 264mg (26% DV)
Sardines (in Oil with Bones) - 383mg (38% DV)
Pink Salmon - (8%)
 Function of Ca
1% of Ca is found in plasma and other body fluids,
where it has important role in blood clotting,
nerve transmission muscle contraction and
relaxation ,cell membrane permeability and
activation of certain enzymes.
Studies suggest that Ca plays a role in the
prevention and treatment of hypertension and
has possible protective effect on development
of cancer
Adequate Ca may ply a role in maintaining a
health body weight or facilitating weight loss
by promoting the break down of fat or
inhibiting fat cells from making fat
. Involved in blood clotting and blood
pressure
 Ca balance in blood
• Achieved through action of vit D and
hormones.
• When Ca levels fall, the parathyroid gland
secretes parathormone (PTH), which
promotes Ca reabsorption in the kidneys and
stimulates the release of Ca from the bones.
• Vit D has the same effects on the kidney and
bones and stimulates the release of Ca from
bones and additionally increases the
absorption of Ca from GIT.
• Together, the action of PTH and VIT D restore
low blood Ca levels to normal
 sources
• Found in milk products, small fish eaten with
bones, tofu, broccoli, and beans.
• Too little stunts growth.
• Too much is excreted.
• In adult years, Ca deficiency leads to
osteoporosis.
• Chronically low Ca intake compromises bone
integrity without affecting blood Ca levels.
• When Ca levels are too high ; the thyroid
gland secretes calcitonin; which promotes the
formation of new bone by taking excess Ca
from the blood.
 Factors influencing Ca absorption
Ca absorption increases in response to the body
needs such as during:
• Pregnancy;
• Lactation
• Growth
• And recovery from bone fracture.
• Lactose, the carbohydrate in milk and vit D
promotes Ca absorption.
• Ca absorption is impaired by vit D deficiency,
phytates and oxalates.
• An adequate Ca intake early in life helps to
maximize bone density and strength and
therefore offers protection against the
inevitable net bone lose that occurs in all
people after the age of about 35 years
 Sources
• Milk and diary products e.g. yogurt, cheese.
• Greens vegetables with low oxalate e.g.
broccoli, cabagge collards kale, okra
• Fortified foods e.g. fruit juice, tomato juice
and ready to eat breakfast cereals
 Chloride
• Chloride A major mineral.
Part of stomach acid.
• Important for proper digestion.
• Found in salt (NaCl), soy sauce, other salty
foods.
• Too little stunts growth in children, and
causes muscle cramps.
 Potassium(k)
• Potassium Daily Intake: 4700 mg/d.
• A major mineral.
Helps maintain healthy muscles and your body’s ability to
use protein.
• Found in most foods.
• Good sources include cottage cheese, milk, navy beans,
salmon, and steak.
• Bananas and potatoes are also good sources.
• Too little leads to muscle weakness (cramping), paralysis,
and even death.
• Too much also causes muscle weaknesses and vomiting.
 Sodium(Na)
• Sodium Daily Intake: < 2400 mg/d A major
mineral.
Helps maintain acid-base fluid balance.
• Found in salt, soy sauce, processed foods,
canned and pickled foods.
• Too little causes muscle cramps.
• Too much causes high blood pressure.
 ZINC
• Zinc Daily Intake: 9-11 mg/d A trace mineral
Functions:
Wound healing, aids immune system function, promotes
growth & enzyme function.
Sources:
• Found in legumes, meat, poultry, seafood and whole
grains.
Deficiency: Stunt growth, poor wound healing, impaired
taste/night vision, heart disease/kidney failure.
Toxicity: Fever, nausea, vomiting
 Iodine
• Iodine Daily intake: 150 μg/d A trace mineral
Promotes normal function of the thyroid
gland.
Sources
• Found in Iodized table salt, processed foods,
saltwater fish/shellfish.
Deficiency—Goiter Visible; enlargement of the
thyroid gland.
• Goiter (Iodine Deficiency)
 Fluoride
• Fluoride Daily intake: 3 mg/d.
• Needed for proper tooth/bone development
Most helpful during tooth development
Protective function
Sources Public water (fluoridated),toothpaste
 Minerals
• Inorganic elements essential to Human Nutrition.
• 14 out of 92 are Essential to Body Function.

Very Important Roles in overall health and well-being

• Assist in Chemical Reactions in Cells
• Crucial to the Immune System Function
• Fluid Balance
• Nutrient Transport into Cells
• Help Skeletal Muscle Contract
• Maintain Heart Beat!
 Two Groups: Major and Trace Minerals
Major Minerals (macrominerals)
Need more than 100 mg/day.
Min of 5 grams in the body. These Include:
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
The major minerals are • Potassium
the 6 dietary minerals • Sulfur
your body needs in the
• Sodium
largest amounts.
• Chloride
 Magnesium
Other Mineral characteristics
Iron
norganic ions and compounds. Zinc
Copper
Made of atoms of same element. Iodide
Selenium
ot destroyed by heat, acid, O2, or Chromium
Manganese
V light.
Molybdenum
emain intact during digestion.
o not change function.
Bioavailability - Degree the nutrient from food is
absorbed and utilized in the body –
Nutritional Status and Competing Minerals in GI tract.
can affect absorption.

Other Nutrients can Improve Bioavailability.

• Vitamin C enhances iron absorption.
• Vitamin D enhances calcium absorption.
• Animal Protein enhances zinc absorption.

Binders can Reduce Bioavailability.

Oxalates, Phytates, and Polyphenols
Mineral Balance is highly Controlled
 GI tract regulates absorption based on needs
 Minerals functioning in intestines (cells/fluids) are either
excreted in feces or reabsorbed via large intestine.

 Kidneys -Excrete Excess and Reabsorb Minerals

Minerals Maintain Fluid Balance
– Extracellular Minerals: Na+ and Cl-
– Intracellular Minerals: K+ and Ca2+, Mg2+, S
Minerals act as Cofactors - substance that binds
to an enzyme to help catalyze a reaction. They
serve as cofactors in:
• Antioxidant Systems
• Energy Production
• Muscle Contraction
• Nerve Transmission
Coenzymes are nonprotein organic molecules
that bind loosely to an enzyme. ...
Typically, cofactors are metal ions.
Some metallic elements have no nutritional value, but several
trace elements function as cofactors in biochemical reactions,
including iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, cobalt, and
molybdenum.
The key difference between holoenzyme and
apoenzyme is that apoenzyme is the protein
component of the enzyme which is inactive
and not bound to the cofactor while
holoenzyme is the protein component of the
enzyme and bound cofactor which creates the
active form of the enzyme
• Minerals contribute to Bones and Teeth.
• They make up Calcium Hydroxyapatite a
crystalline structure giving rigidity.
Contains major minerals: Calcium, phosphorus (and O2)
Bioavailability:
Vitamin D and lactose  absorption.
Low Protein intake  absorption.
Phytates and Oxalates  Ca2+ bioavailability.
Absorption
Low blood Ca2+ increases Ca2+ absorption.

The more Ca2+ consumed at once time, less absorbed.

 Hormones Low Blood Calcium

Regulate
Calcium
Homeostasis
(Balance)
High Blood Calcium

Calcitriol (Vit. D3)

Parathyroid
Hormone
and
Calcitonin
 Functions of Calcium

Ca2+ helps build strong

bones and teeth.
Hard Outer Bone Surface

Trabecular Bone:
Inside of bone; more sensitive to
changes in dietary calcium
Calcium Functions: Many Important Roles:
 Muscle Contraction
 Nerve Transmission – release of Neurotransmitter!
 Regulating Hormones and Enzymes
 Blood Vessel Dilation/Constriction: Blood Pressure
 Blood Clotting
Calcium May:
Prevent Colon Cancer – by protecting lining of
tract from caustic and abrasive substances.
Reduce the risk of kidney stones – Ca2+ binds to
oxalates in foods.
Reduce the risk of obesity – by normalizing
interactions between hormones.
Inadequate Ca2+ shifts hormonal response of PTH and
calcitriol which may stimulate fat production and storage.
 Daily Needs for Ca2+
AI for Adults: 1,000 to 1,100 mg/day
UL: 2,500 mg/day
Americans fall short, consuming < 800 mg/day.

Ca2+ Toxicity
Hypercalcemia: Too much Ca2+ in blood
Symptoms:
• Constipation
• Bone pain
• Muscle weakness
• Mental confusion
• Impairs absorption of Fe, Zn, Mg and P.
Ca2+ Deficiency
Hypocalcemia: Blood Ca2+ levels below normal
Bones less dense, weakened and brittle.
risk of Osteoporosis and Bone Fractures

Do not take a calcium supplement at the

same time of day as an iron supplement!
Minerals can be toxic in high amounts
=> illness and even death.

Toxicity NOT from excess dietary intake, but from:

• Excess of supplements and

• Conditions interfering with body's adaptive abilities

Minerals are in
Balance with
each other
in the Body
 Phosphorus (PO43-)
2nd most abundant Mineral in Body

Most (85%) in Bone Tissue

the rest in muscle, cell membrane, ECF

Absorbed in the Small Intestine

Vitamin D enhances
bioavailability(absorption).

Phytate, aluminum, magnesium

and calcium  absorption.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
This hormones regulates P homeostasis.
– Stimulates resorption of P from bone
– Stimulates P excretion from kidney

Excretion – most P lost in Urine, some in Feces

 Phosphorus Needs in the Body!
Formation of Bones and Teeth
Along with Ca2+ makes Calcium Hydroxyapatite

Integral part of cell membrane Phospholipids

Required for ATP and Creatine Phosphate

Acts as a Buffer in acid-base balance

“Phosphate Backbone” is part of DNA and RNA
in every cell!
Function of P
I. Regulating acid –base balance (phosphoric
and its base)
II. Metabolizing energy
III. Providing structure and to cell membranes
(phospholipids)
IV. Important component of RNA and DNA
V. Responsible for activating many enzymes
and the B vitamins
As with Ca, Phosphorus is regulated by PTH.
The major route of excretion is through urine
RDA Adult: 700 mg/day
UL: 4,000 mg/day
Americans consume 1,000 mg/day.

Food Sources of Phosphorus

• Foods from animal sources
• Plant seeds – 50% of P is bioavailable due to phytates.
• Soft drinks and colas contain phosphoric acid.
P Toxicity
Hyperphosphatemia - Only with kidney disease

High intake of P with low Ca2+ intake can

decrease bone mass.

Can lead to Ca2+ deposits in soft tissue

P Deficiency is rare.
Hypophosphatemia
Muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets, confusion,
and death in extreme cases!
RDA Adult: 700 mg/day
UL: 4,000 mg/day

Food Sources of Phosphorus

• Foods from animal sources
• Plant seeds – 50% of P is bioavailable due to phytates.
• Soft drinks and colas contain phosphoric acid.
P Toxicity
Hyperphosphatemia - Only with kidney disease

High intake of P with low Ca2+ intake can

decrease bone mass.

Can lead to Ca2+ deposits in soft tissue

P Deficiency is rare.
Hypophosphatemia
Muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets, confusion,
and death in extreme cases!
 Potassium (K+)
• Major Cation in intracellular fluid (ICF)
• Absorbed in Small Intestine and Colon
• Kidneys regulate balance excreting excess.
• Muscle Contraction and Nerve Impulse.
• Rhythmic Heart Beats.
• Regulate Blood Pressure when excreted.
• Acts as a Buffer in Blood.
• Preserves Ca2+ and PO43- in bones.
Minor amounts are lost in sweat.
 Daily Needs
Adults: 4,700mg/day. Most Americans fall short.
F ~2,200 and
May  Hypertension. M~3,300mg/day.

May  bone losses and risk of kidney stones.

Nutrient Rating for K

Food Source DV
Beet Greens 37%
Lima Beans 27%
Swiss Chard 27%
Sweet Potato 27%
Potatoes 26%
Spinach 24%
Avocado 21%
Pinto Beans 21%
Bananas 10%
K Toxicity
Hyperkalemia: Too much K+ in blood!
Cannot occur from food intake – but with supplementation or salt
substitutes!

This can lead to:

• Irregular heart beat
• Heart damage
• Death
If kidneys impaired or taking medications for heart
disease or diuretics  risk and need to be cautious.
 Sulfate (SO42–)
• An Oxidized form of Sulfur (S)
• Sulfate is a part of other compounds in Body:
– Proteins
– Thiamin
– Biotin

Absorption
– Is absorbed throughout the GI tract
– About 80% SO42- consumed is Absorbed.
– Kidneys excrete excess.
 Metabolic Functions of Sulfate

Part of Amino Acids Methionine and Cysteine

Gives 3-D shape to proteins enables them to act as
enzymes and hormones and provide structure to body
 Sulfur - Can be used as a Preservative
Sulfites prevents spoilage and discoloration in foods
e.g. Sulfites are found in wine - those sensitive may get:
Headaches, sneezing, swelling of the throat, hives

Food Sources of Sulfate

• Meat, poultry, fish, and eggs
• Legumes
• Dairy foods
• Fruits and vegetables
• Beverages: Beer, wine
No RDA, no UL! - No Toxicity or Deficiency symptoms
 Sodium (Na)
• Major Mineral => Na+ Electrolyte
• Cation usually combined with chloride (NaCl)

• Primarily in Blood and extracellular fluid (ECF)

• Regulates Blood Volume

Na also Located:
• Within Hydroxyapatite crystals in bone;
• In Nervous Tissue;
• In Muscular Tissue. Table salt – accounts for 90% of our Na - part
of our problem? Please, use Sea Salt!
40% wt table salt = Na; 60% wt table salt = Cl
Absorption, Transport, and Excretion of Na
• 95-100% absorbed in Small Intestine!
• About 5% Excreted in Feces.
• Blood levels Maintained by Kidneys.

Na Regulates Fluid Volumes:

High [Na+] signals need to Conserve Water.

Hypertonic (‘salty’) blood triggers Thirst mechanism in

Hypothalamus – signals drinking! Na loss through perspiration!
Also triggers Renin release, then Angiotensinogen
activation and also ADH release to urine excretion!
Sodium Balance Maintained by Kidneys

Aldosterone causes
kidney to retain sodium!
Na plays a role in nerve impulse transmission
and participates in
muscle contraction

• Helps transport some

nutrients

• Preserves and enhances food flavor!

 Food Sources of Sodium
Some Facts and Figures about Na use:
• About 70% of Na is from processed foods.
Canned, processed meats, frozen or pre-packaged meals

• Only 12% comes from natural food sources

• About 5% added during cooking.

• About 6% added at the table.

Hypernatremia (excess Na in blood) – when fluids not
replenished as water is lost (e.g. vomiting or diarrhea)
* Or, from ingesting too much Na+

Sodium deficiency is rare.

Hyponatremia - from consuming too much water in a
short time, e.g. endurance athletes.
Symptoms: Headache, muscle weakness, fatigue,
seizures, as we have seen, can cause death.

* Also occurs with Diuretic use.

 Chloride (Cl–)
• A Major Electrolyte
• An Anion bound to Na (NaCl in foods)
• Primarily in blood (88%), the other 12% is:
– in intracellular fluid (ICF)
– part of HCl (hydrochloric acid) in stomach

• After ingestion, dissociates in the stomach.

• Absorbed in Small Intestine - Excreted in Urine

• Not to be confused with chlorine, a powerful

disinfectant, poisonous if inhaled or ingested.
 Metabolic Functions of Chloride
• Maintains Fluid Balance.
• Assists in the removal of CO2 from blood.
• Maintains normal pH range of blood.
• Part hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Chloride Daily Needs and Food Sources

• Daily needs: AI Adults 50 is 2,300 mg/day.

Food Sources:
– Table salt
– Processed foods
– Seaweed, tomatoes, olives, lettuce, celery, and rye
– Salt substitutes
Daily Needs of Cl
UL = 3,600 mg. Toxicity is very rare.
*Can occur with severe dehydration (hyperchloremia)

• Deficiency - Rare
From prolonged diarrhea or vomiting.
Diuretics can increase urinary losses.

Symptoms: shallow breathing, muscle weakness,

muscle spasms, and twitching
 Magnesium (Mg2+)
~60% in bones, 25% in muscles, the rest in cells.

Bioavailability is about 50%.

Absorption
A high-fiber, whole-grain, high phytates, lowers
absorption.
Intestinal absorption and kidney excretion
adjusts based on diet and need.
 Daily Needs for Mg
Adults: 300 to 400 mg/day
Americans fall short of consuming adequate Mg.
Mg2+ Toxicity - Consuming excess supplements
can cause intestinal problems.
Diarrhea, cramps, nausea

Mg2+ Deficiency Rare.

Some medications cause deficiency.
Poorly controlled diabetes and alcohol abuse.

Symptoms:
Muscle weakness, seizures, fatigue, depression, and
irregular heart beats.
 Bone Mass

Exercise improves bone mass.

– Weight-bearing exercise maintains and  bone.

– High-impact exercise  growth and mineral

content during adolescence.

– Only the bones that are exercised benefit

– High-intensity exercise  bone mass and muscle

strength more than less intense exercise.
Body Weight impacts Bone Mass
– Overweight promotes greater BMD in the hip and
spine compared to health weight individuals.

– Bone is lost during weight loss; adequate calcium

intake accompanied by slow weight loss will lessen
bone loss.

– Excessive Alcohol intake is associated with

osteoporosis.