18CSS202J- COMPUTER

COMMUNICATION
 UNIT –I Contents
• Evolution of Computer Networks
• Network Categories
• Data Transmission Modes
• Network Topologies
• Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
• Protocols and Standards
• OSI Layers and its functions
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Link Layer Protocols
• Network Layer Protocols
• Transport Layer Protocols
• Serial and Parallel Transmissions
• Addressing
 Evolution of Computer
Networks
Computer Networks?
 A group of interconnected computers
 The evolution of two scientific and
important
technical branches of modern civilization
- Computing and
- Telecommunications technologies
 Evolution of Computer
Networks
Communication Network?
• A network of links and nodes arranged messages
may be passed from one part of the network to another
• What are nodes and links?
 People and roads
 Telephones and switches
 Computers and routers
• What is a message?
 Useful Information
• What are the 5 essential components required
to establish computer communication?
1) Sender 2) Receiver 3) Link 4) Protocol 5)
Message
 Evolution of Computer
Networks
• Networks are Old
• 2400 BC: courier networks in Egypt
• 550 BC: postal service invented in Persia
• Problems
• Speed
• Reliab
ility
• Securi
ty
• 1837:
Telegrap
h
 Evolution of Computer
Networks
• 1881: Twisted pair for local loops
• 1885: AT&T formed
• 1892: Automatic telephone switches
• 1903: 3 million telephones in the US
• 1915: First transcontinental cable
• 1927: First transatlantic cable
• 1937: first round-the-world call
• 1946: National numbering plan
•Telephone network is the dominating
communication network
• Used circuit switching
Network Categories

• LAN – Local Area Network

• MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
• WAN – Wide Area Network
• PAN – Personal Area Network
Network Categories
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN
•Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers
connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
•LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
•It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware
such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables.
•The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
Local Area Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
 Characteristics of LAN
•LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other
regulatory controls.
•LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to
the typical WAN.
•There are different types of Media Access Control
methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are Ethernet,
Token ring.
•It connects computers in a single building, block or
campus, i.e. they work in a restricted geographical area.
 Applications of LAN
•One of the computer in a network can become a server
serving all the remaining computers called clients.
•Software can be stored on the server and it can be used
by the remaining clients.
•Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to
let them communicate with each other locally without
any internet access.
•Sharing common resources like printers etc are some
common applications of LAN.
 Advantages of LAN
Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-
ROM drives and hard disks can be shared with the help of local area
networks. This reduces cost and hardware purchases.
Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software
over network instead of purchasing separate licensed software for
each client a network.
Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be
transferred over networked computers.
Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on
hard disk of the server computer. This will help users to use any
workstation in a network to access their data. Because data is not
stored on workstations locally.
Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it
will be easy to manage data at only one place and the data will be
more secure too.
Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a
single internet connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes,
single internet connection sharing system keeps the internet
expenses cheaper.
 Disadvantages of LAN
High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due
to shared computer resources, but the initial setup costs of
installing Local Area Networks is high.
Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check
personal data files of each and every LAN user. Moreover he can
check the internet history and computer use history of the LAN
user.
Data Security Threat: Unauthorized users can access important
data of an organization if centralized data repository is not
secured properly by the LAN administrator.
LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN
Administrator because, there are problems of software
installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local
Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time
job.
Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like
one office, one building or a group of nearby buildings.
Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that

covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting
a different LAN to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the
citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each
other through a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-
232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
 Characteristics of MAN
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
•Communication medium used for MAN are optical
fibers, cables etc.
•Data rates adequate for distributed computing
applications.
Applications
•MAN is used in communication between the banks in
a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.
 Advantages of MAN
•Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via
high-speed carriers, such as fiber optic cables.
•It provides a good back bone for large network and
provides greater access to WANs.
•The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data
in both directions simultaneously.
• A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or
an entire city.
Disadvantages:
•More cable required for a MAN connection from one
place to another.
•It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and
industrial espionage (spying) graphical regions.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN can be private or it can be public leased network.
•It is used for the network that covers large distance such as
cover states of a country.
• It is not easy to design and maintain.
•Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite
links.
• WAN operates on low data rates.
Examples for WAN
Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a
region or country.
Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet
services to the customers in hundreds of cities by connecting
their home with fiber.
Private network: A bank provides a private network that
connects the 44 offices. This network is made by using the
telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
 Characteristics of WAN
•It generally covers large distances(states, countries,
continents).
• Communication medium used are satellite, public
telephone networks which are connected by routers.
Advantages of WAN
Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large
geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a
different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The
internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with
another branch.
Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized.
Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up
servers.
Get updated files: Software companies work on the live
server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within
seconds.
Advantages of WAN (Contd.)
Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are
transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook,
WhatsApp, Skype allows you to communicate with
friends.
Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we
can share the software and other resources like a hard
drive, RAM.
Global business: We can do the business over the internet
globally.
High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our
company then this gives the high bandwidth. The high
bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.
 Disadvantages of WAN
Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues
as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the
technologies are combined together that creates the
security problem.
Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is
transferred on the internet which can be changed or
hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used.
Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus
is needed to protect from such a virus.
High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network
is high as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing
the problem is difficult.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
Personal Area Network (PAN)
•Personal Area Network is a network arranged
within an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters.
•Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research
scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
•Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
 Examples of PAN
Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that
moves with a person. For example, a mobile network
moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a
network connection and then creates a connection with
another device to share the information.
Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside
the home, so it is also known as a home network. A home
network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected
to the internet.
Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of
devices to the internet and to a corporate network using a
VPN
Data Transmission Modes
•The data is transmitted from one device to another device
through a transmission mode.
•The transmission mode decides the direction of data in
which the data needs to travel to reach the receiver system
or node.
• The transmission mode is divided into three categories:
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex
 Simplex Mode

1.In simplex mode the data transmits in one

direction only, from one system to another system.
2.The sender device that sends data can only send
data and cannot receive it. On the other hand the
receiver device can only receive the data and cannot
send it.
3.Television is an example of simplex mode
transmission as the broadcast sends signals to our
TV but never receives signals back from our TV. This
is a unidirectional transmission.
 Simplex Mode
Advantages of Simplex Mode:
The full capacity of the transmission medium is
utilized as the transmission is one way and cannot
have traffic issues.

Disadvantages of Simplex Mode:

No bidirectional communication is possible. Two
devices cannot communicate with each other
using simplex mode of transmission.
 Half-Duplex Mode

1) In half duplex mode transmission can be done both ways which

means if two systems are connected with half-duplex mode of
transmission, they both can send and receive data but not at the
same time.
2) If one device is sending data then other device cannot send data
until it receives the data which is already in transmission. You can
say that the communication is not simultaneous.
3) The radio communication device that our soldiers use at the battle
fields are the examples of half duplex mode transmission as they
send message and then say over and then the person on other
hand send his message and this way they communicate but not
simultaneously like we used to do on mobile.
 Half-Duplex Mode
Advantages of Half-Duplex mode:
Both devices can send and receive data.
Whole bandwidth can be utilized as at a time only one
signal transmits.

Disadvantages of Half-Duplex mode:

The disadvantage in half duplex mode is that the other
device cannot send data until it receives the data which is
already in transmission, this can cause delays to the
communication.
 Full-Duplex Mode

1.In full duplex mode both the connected

devices can send and receive data
simultaneously. The mobile phone we use is
an example of full duplex mode where we
can communicate simultaneously.
2.Both the devices can send and receive the
data at the same time.
 Full-Duplex Mode
Advantages of Full Duplex mode:
No delays in communication as both can
send and receive data simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Full Duplex mode:

No proper bandwidth utilization as the same
line is used for sending and receiving data
at the same time.
 Network Topology- Types
• Topology: physical or logical arrangement of
devices
– Point-to-point
– Mesh
– Star
– Bus
– Ring
– Hybrid
Point-to-Point Connection

35
Fully Connected Mesh Topology
• Pros:
– Dedicated links
– Robustness
– Privacy
– Easy to identify fault
• Cons:
– A lot of cabling
– I/O ports
– Difficult to move

36
 Star Topology
A D A D

Hub Drop
Switch

B C B C
Drop

37
 Star Topology
• Pros:
– One I/O port per device
– Little cabling
– Easy to install
– Robustness
Hub
– Easy to identify fault

• Cons:
– Single point of failure
– More cabling still
required

38
 Bus Topology

Drop
line

Tap

Terminator

39
Bus Topology
• Pros:
– Little cabling
– Easy to install

• Cons:
– Difficult to modify
– Difficult to isolate fault
– Break in the bus cable
stops all transmission

40
 Ring Topology
C

D
B

41
Ring Topology

• Pros:
– Easy to install
– Easy to identify fault

• Cons:
– Delay in large ring
– Break in the ring stops all
transmission
42
Hybrid Topologies

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43
 Network Topology -Comparison
Parameters Bus Ring Star Mesh
Network Small Small or Large Small Small
Performance

Cable Length Less Neither less More More

Requirement nor

Traffic Less High Medium No

Dataflow More Neither less More More
Efficiency nor more

Failure Easy to solve Difficult to Easy to solve Easy to solve

solve except
hub/switch
fails

Cost Low High High High

 Switching
1. INTRODUCTION

2. CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORK

3. PACKET-SWITCHING

Introduction:
• Network connections rely on switches.
• Mostly switches operate at Layer-2. Switches
can operate at the
 Physical layer
 Data link layer
 Network layer
INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHING

Figure 1: Switched network

Figure 2: Taxonomy of Switched network

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

•A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected

by physical links.

• Circuit-switches operate at the physical layer.

•A circuit-switched network creates a dedicated path to complete a

link between the sender and receiver.
 Example 1
As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched network to connect
eight telephones in a small area. Communication is through 4-kHz
voice channels. We assume that each link uses FDM to connect a
maximum of two voice channels. The bandwidth of each link is then
8 kHz. Figure 4 shows the situation. Telephone 1 is connected to
telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4 to 6. Of course the situation may
change when new connections are made. The switch controls the
connections.
Example 2
As another example, consider a circuit-switched network that connects
computers in two remote offices of a private company. The offices are
connected using a T-1 line leased from a communication service provider.
There are two 4 × 8 (4 inputs and 8 outputs) switches in this network. For
each switch, four output ports are folded into the input ports to allow
communication between computers in the same office. Four other output
ports allow communication between the two offices. Figure 5 shows the
situation.
The actual communication in a circuit-switched
network requires three phases:
• Connection setup,
• Data transfer, and
• Connection termination.

Data transfer

Figure 6 : circuit-switched network three phases

 Efficiency
It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not
as efficient as the other two types of networks
because resources are allocated during the entire
duration of the connection.

These resources are unavailable to other connections.

In a telephone network, people normally terminate the
communication when they have finished their
conversation.
Delay
During data transfer the data are not delayed at each
switch; the resources are allocated for the duration of the
connection.

D a t a transfer

Figure 7: Delay in a circuit-switched network

PACKET SWITCHING

A packet-switched network divides the data into packets

of fixed or variable size.

The size of the packet is determined by the network and

the governing protocol.

Packet switched networks are classified as

A. Datagram Networks
B. Virtual circuit Networks
 Datagram Networks
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently
of all others.

A datagram network operates at the Network layer.

Even if a packet is part of a multi-packet transmission, the
network treats packets as though they existed alone.
Even if a packet is part of a multi-packet transmission, the
network treats each packet as an independent message.
Each packet of one message can travel a different
route towards their final destination.
Packets using this approach are referred to as datagrams.
 3 1
4 3 2 1
4
1

2 3
1
4
2 2 3 4 1

Figure 8: A Datagram network with four 3-level switches

Datagram Networks
 All packets have a destination address in the header.
 The packets have a destination address in the header.
 The destination address for each datagram is used at a router
to forward the message towards its final destination.
 The packet header contains a sequence number in the header
so it can be ordered at the destination.

Figure 9: Routing table in a datagram network

Figure 10: Delays in a datagram network (compare to next slide)
 Data transfer

Figure 11: Compare the datagram network to the circuit-

switched network
 Virtual-Circuit Networks
 A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a
circuit- switched network and a datagram network.
 The virtual-circuit shares characteristics of both.
 The virtual-circuit network operates at the data-
link layer.
 The packets for a virtual circuit network are
known as frames.
Virtual-Circuit Networks
A virtual-circuit network uses a series of special temporary
addresses known as virtual circuit identifiers (VCI).

The VCI at each switch, is used to advance the frame towards its
final destination.

Figure 13: Virtual-circuit identifier (compare the VCI to a

Datagram destination address)
Virtual-Circuit Networks
The switch has a table with 4 columns:
a) Inputs half
•Input Port Number
•Input VCI
b) Outputs half
•Output Port Number
•Output VCI
Figure15: Source-to-destination data transfer in a circuit-
switch network
 Virtual Circuit Networks
 The VCN behaves like a circuit switched net because there is a
setup phase to establish the VCI entries in the switch table.

 There is also a data transfer phase and teardown phase.

Figure16: Setup request in a virtual-circuit network all nodes have a VCI

Figure17: Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-
circuit network
Figure 18: Delay in a virtual-circuit network
Comparison Chart

BASIS CIRCUIT SWITCHING PACKET SWITCHING

Orientation Connection oriented. Connectionless.

Purpose Initially designed for Voice Initially designed for Data Transmission.
communication.
Flexibility Inflexible, because once a path is set Flexible, because a route is created for each
all parts of a transmission follows the packet to travel to the destination.
same path.

Order Message is received in the order, sent Packets of a message are received out of
from the source. order and assembled at the destination.

Technology/ Circuit switching can be achieved Packet Switching has two approaches
Ap proach using two technologies, either Space Datagram Approach and Virtual Circuit
Division Switching or Time-Division Approach.
Switching.

Layers Circuit Switching is implemented at Packet Switching is implemented at

Physical Layer. Network Layer.
Protocols & Standards
Protocols
Communicating worldwide will not be possible if there
were no fixed 'standards' that will govern the way user
communicates for data as well as the way our devices
treat those data
•For proper communication, entities in different systems
must speak the same language
- there must be mutually acceptable conventions and
rules about the content, timing and underlying
mechanisms
•Those conventions and associated rules are referred as
“PROTOCOLS”
67
 Protocols

Network Protocols:
“Network protocols are sets of established
rules that dictate how to format, transmit and
receive data so computer network devices --
from servers and routers to endpoints -- can
communicate regardless of the differences in
their underlying infrastructures, designs or
standards”

68
 Elements of Protocols

i) Syntax: The structure or format of the data.

Eg. A simple protocol;
ii) Semantics: - Refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
- how is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be
taken based on that interpretation.
Eg. Does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final of the message?
iii) Timing
Refers to two characteristics:
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at
only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and data will be
69
 Characteristics of protocol
a) Direct / indirect
Communication between two entities maybe direct or indirect.
i) point-to-point link
- connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices
- the entities in these systems may communicate directly that
is data and control information pass directly between
entities with no intervening active agent.

multipoint link
- connection more than two devices can share a single
link
- The entities must be concerned with the issue of
access control and making the protocol more complex. 70
Characteristics of protocol

71
Characteristics of protocol

72
 Characteristics of protocol
b) Monolithic / structured
- The task of communication between entities
on different systems is too complex to be
handled as a unit.
Eg. An electronic mail package running on two
computers connected by a synchronous HDLC link. To
be structured, the package would need to include all
of the HDLC logic. If the connection were over a
packet-switched network, the packaged would still
need the HDLC logic to attach it to the network.
73
 Characteristics of protocol
c) Symmetric / asymmetric
- Symmetric is the most use in protocol and involve communication
between peer entities.
- Asymmetry may be dictated by the logic of an exchange (eg; client
and a server process) the desire to keep one of the entities or
systems as simple as possible.

d) Standard / nonstandard
• If K different kinds of information sources have to
communicate with L types of information receivers, as many
as K x L different protocols are needed without standards and
a total of 2 x K x L implementations are required
• If all systems shared a common protocol, only K+L
implementations would be needed.
74
 Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining
an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and also in guaranteeing national
and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.
• They provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers
to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in
today's marketplace and in international
communication.

75
 Standards
• Data communication standards fall into two
categories: de facto ( meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" and
"by regulation").
– De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards
through widespread use are de facto standards. De
facto standards are often established originally by
manufacturers that seek to define the functionality of a
new product or technology.
– De jure. De jure standards are those that have been
legislated by an officially recognized body.

76
Standards and Organizations
• Standards are developed through cooperation of
standards creation committees, forums and
government regulatory agencies.
• Some of the standards establishment Organizations
are:
– International Standards Organization
(ISO) http://www.iso.org/
– International Telecommunications Union-
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-
T). http://www.itu.int/ITU-T
– American National Standard Institute
(ANSI).
– Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE). http://www.ieee.gov/
– Electronic Industries Association (EIA). 77
Forums
• To facilitate the standardization process, many
special-interest groups have developed forums
made up of representatives from interested
corporations.
• The forums work with universities and users to
test, evaluate and standardize new technologies
• The forums are able to speed acceptance and
use of those technologies in the
telecommunications community

78
 Forums
The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
Some important forums for the telecommunications industry
include the following:
• Frame Relay Forum. The Frame Relay Forum was formed by
digital equipment Corporation, Northern Telecom, Cisco, and
StrataCom to promote the acceptance and implementation of
frame relay. Today, it has around 40 members representing
North America, Europe, and the Pacific rim. Issues under
Review include flow control. encapsulation, translation, and
multicasting. the forum's results are submitted to the ISO.
• ATM Forum. http://www.atmforum.com/ The ATM Forum
provides acceptance and use of Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) technology. The ATM Forum is made up of Customer
Premises Equipment (e.g., PBX systems ) vendors and Central
Office (e.g., telephone exchange) providers. It is concerned
with the standardization of service to ensure interoperability.79
 Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to regulation
by government agencies such as Federal Communication
Commission (FCC) in the United States.
• The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public
interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable
communications.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
http://www.fcc.gov/
• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has
authority over interstate and international commerce as it
relates to communications
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 RFCs
• RFCs go through maturity levels and are
categorized according to their requirement level
– Maturity Levels
An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of six maturity
levels: proposed standard, draft standard, Internet
standard, historic, experimental, and Informational.
–Proposed Standard.
A proposed standard is a specification that is stable,
well understood, and of sufficient interest to the
internet community. At this level, the specification is
usually tested and implemented by several different
programs.
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 RFCs
– Draft Standard. A proposed standard is elevated to draft
standard status after atleast two successful independent and
interoperable implementations. Barring difficulties, a draft
standard, with modifications if specific problems are
encountered, normally becomes an internet standard.
– Internet Standard. A draft standard reaches Internet standard
after demonstrations of successful implementation.
– Historic. The Historic RFCs are significant from a historical
perspective. They either have been superseded by later
specifications or have never passed the necessary maturity
levels to become an internet standard.
– Experimental. An RFC classified as experimental describes
work related to an experimental situation that does not affect
the operation of the internet. Such an RFC should not be
implemented in any functional Internet service
82
 RFCs
– Informational. An RFC classified as informational
contains general, historical, or tutorial information
related to the Internet. It is usually written by
someone in a non-Internet organization, such as a
vendor.
• RFC Requirement Levels
RFCs are classified into 5 Requirement Levels:
required, recommended, elective, limited use
and not recommended.

83
 RFCs
– Required. An RFC is labeled required if it must be
implemented by all Internet systems to achieve minimum
conformance. For example, IP and ICMP are required
protocols.
– Recommended. An RFC labeled recommended is not required
for minimum conformance; it is recommended because of its
usefulness. For example, FTP and TELNET are recommended
protocols.
– Elective. An RFC labeled elective is not required and not
recommended. However, a system can use it for its own
benefit.
– Limited Use. An RFC labeled limited use should be used only
in limited situations. Most of the experimental RFCs fall under
this category.
– Not recommended. An RFC labeled not recommended is
inappropriate for general use. Normally a historic (obsolete)
RFC may fall under this category. 84
 Protocol Suite

• A set of cooperating network protocols is

called a protocol suite.
• For example, the TCP/IP suite includes
numerous protocols across layers -- such as
the data, network, transport and application
layers -- working together to enable internet
connectivity.

85
 Types of Network Protocols

Networks have three types of protocols

1. Communication, such as Ethernet
2. Management, such as the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP); and
3. Security, such as Secure Shell (SSH)
Falling into these three broad categories are
thousands of network protocols that uniformly
handle an extensive variety of defined tasks

86
Implementation of Protocols

• They are coded within software, either

– a part of the computer's operating system (OS) or
– as an application, or
– implemented within the computer's hardware.
• Most modern OSs possess built-in software services
that implement some network protocols
• Applications, such as web browsers,
implement protocols in the form of software
libraries
• TCP/IP and routing protocol support is implemented
in direct hardware for enhanced performance 87
General protocol Architecture

• Layered structure
– Protocol stack
• Each layer provides services to upper layer; expect
services from lower one
– Layer interfaces should be well-defined
• Peer entities communicate using their own
protocol
– peer-to-peer protocols
– independent of protocols at other layers
– if one protocol changes, other protocols should
not get affected
88
Protocol Architectures
and Networks
or ports

89
 Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
• User data is passed from layer to layer
• Control information is added/removed to/from
user data at each layer
– Header (and sometimes trailer)
– each layer has a different header/trailer
• Data + header + trailer = PDU (Protocol Data
Unit)
– This is basically what we call packet
– each layer has a different PDU

91
Operation of a Protocol
Architecture

Transport Transport
Header Header

Network Network
Header Header

(Network PDU)

91
Standard Protocol Architectures

• Common set of conventions

• Nonstandard vs. standard protocols
– Nonstandard: K sources and L receivers lead to K*L
different protocols
– If common protocol used, we design only once
• Products from different vendors interoperate
– Customers do not stick to a specific vendor
– If a common standard is not implemented in a
product, then that product’s market is limited;
customers like standard products

93
 Standard Protocol
Architectures
• Two approaches (standard)
– OSI Reference model
• never used widely
• but well known
– TCP/IP protocol suite
• Most widely used
• Another approach (proprietary)
– IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA)

94
 OSI Reference Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
• Reference model
– provides a general framework for standardization
– defines a set of layers and services provided by each layer
– one or more protocols can be developed for each layer
• Developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
– also published by ITU-T (International Telecommunications
Union)
• A layered model
– Seven layers – seven has been presented as the optimal number
of layer
• Delivered too late (published in 1984)!
– by that time TCP/IP started to became the de facto standard
• Although no OSI-based protocol survived, the model is still valid (in
the textbooks)
– For Data Link Layer (that we will see later) OSI protocols are still
valid 94
 OSI - The Layer Model
• The term “Open” denotes the
ability to connect any 2 devices
which conforms to the reference
model and the associated
standards.
• Each layer performs a subset of
the required communication
functions
• Each layer relies on the next lower
layer to perform more primitive
functions
• Each layer provides services to the
next higher layer.
• Changes in one layer should not
require changes in other layers 96
Layer Specific Standards

97
Elements of Standardization

• Protocol specification
– Operates between the same layer on two systems
• May involve different platforms
– Protocol specification must be precise
• Format of data units
• Semantics of all fields
• Service definition
– Functional description of what is provided to the next
upper layer
• Addressing
– Referenced by SAPs

98
The OSI Architecture

99
 Layer to Layer
Communication

100
Physical Layer
• Provides interface for transmission of information.
• There is no interpretation at this level, a stream of 1’s and 0’s
are put into a form convenient for transmission.
– Waves (with little regard for their information content) are
sent and received.
• This level is the most hardware oriented. It includes
specifications about
– NIC card speeds
– Types and lengths of cable
– Voltage characteristics (range, level or edge)
• The physical layer involves protocols for actual
transmission
– Ethernet
– FDDI
– RS232
– ATM
• These protocols also involve the interface with the next higher
layer. 101
 Data Link Layer (DLL)
• At this layer one begins to consider bytes instead of just
bits, one examines some of the information content of the
signal (at least the address and some of the error detection
sequencing)
• Recall that bridges operate at this level
– They know where a packet is headed.
– They know whether or not it has been involved in a
collision.
– Bit stuffing occurs at this level.
• Data packets are encoded and decoded into bits.
• It directs packets and handles errors from the physical
layer.
102
 Data Link Layer (DLL)
• It handles synchronization (timing).
– It must know where one bit ends and the next one
begins.
– It must know where one byte ends and the next one
begins
• The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers:
– The MAC (Media Access Control) sub-layer: takes the
signal from or puts the signal onto the transmission
line (“touches” physical layer).
– The LLC (Logical Link Control) sub-layer: starts to
interpret the signal as data, includes timing
(synchronization) and error checking.
103
 Network Layer
• The router acted at this layer.
• One of the main functions of the layer is routing.
Store and forward are network layer functions.
• In a connection-oriented scheme, the virtual
circuit is established at the network layer.
• Building the routing tables, troubleshooting the
routing tables when there is a lot of traffic or if a
connection goes down.
• The network layer also gathers related packets
(packet sequencing).

104
 Transport Layer
• As stated before, Layer 4 is the dividing line between inter-
computer transactions and intra-computer transactions.
• Layer 4 manages end-to-end verification.
– The lower layers make a “best effort” but if data is lost so be
it. Layer
4 must ensure that the information was received intact.
• It does a higher-order error-checking.
• The transfer should be “transparent.” The higher layers
do not know the data came from another computer.
• At a node Layer 3 collects associated packets if one was
dropped it may throw them all away.
• It is the responsibility of the source’s Layer 4 to look for some
acknowledgement that all packets arrived. If no
acknowledgment is received, it should retransmit 105
 Session Layer

• Recall when discussing connection-oriented

schemes, we mentioned the idea of a “session.”
• It is an agreement between a source and
destination to communicate.
• This layer establishes, manages and terminates
sessions between applications (they could be on
the same computer or on different computers).

106
 Presentation Layer

• This layer independence

from differences
provides in data representation
(e.g.,
encryption) by translating from application to
network format, and vice versa.
• The presentation layer works to transform data
into the form that the application layer can
accept.
• This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent
across a network, providing freedom from
compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the
“syntax layer.”
107
 Application Layer
• This layer supports application and end-user
processes.
• Communication partners are identified, quality of
service is identified, user authentication and privacy
are considered, and any constraints on data syntax
are identified
• Everything at this layer is application-specific. This
layer provides application services for file transfers,
e-mail, and other network software services. Telnet
and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the
application level.
• These are not applications (like Word and Excel) but
services for such applications
108
 Mnemonic
• Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away
– Please  Physical
– Do  Data Link
– Not  Network
– Throw  Transport
– Sausage  Session
– Pizza  Presentation
– Away  Application

109
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Most widely used interoperable network protocol architecture
• Specified and extensively used before OSI
– OSI was slow to take place in the market
• Funded by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET)
– DoD (Department of Defense) automatically created an
enormous market for TCP/IP
• Used by the Internet and WWW
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match
exactly with those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware.
• Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with the
layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI model
110
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The Layers used in the TCP/IP protocol
– Application layer
– Transport (host to host / end to end) layer
– Internet layer
– Network access layer
– Physical layer

• Actually TCP/IP reference model has been built on its protocols

– That is why that reference model is only for TCP/IP protocol
suite
– and this is why it is not so important to assign roles to each
layer in TCP/IP; understanding TCP, IP and the application
protocols would be enough
111
OSI vs. TCP/IP

112
Network Access and Physical Layers

• TCP/IP reference model does not discuss these

layers too much
– the node should connect to the network with a
protocol such that it can send IP packets
– this protocol is not defined by TCP/IP
– mostly in hardware
– a well known example is Ethernet

113
Internet Layer
• Connectionless, point to point internetworking
protocol (uses the datagram approach)
– takes care of routing across multiple networks
– each packet travels in the network independently of
each other
• they may not arrive (if there is a problem in the network)
• they may arrive out of order
– a design decision enforced by DoD to make the system
more flexible and responsive to loss of some subnet
devices
• Implemented in end systems and routers as the
Internet Protocol (IP)

115
 Transport Layer
• End-to-end data transfer
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
– connection oriented
– reliable delivery of data
– ordering of delivery
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
– connectionless service
– delivery is not guaranteed
• Can you give example applications that use TCP
and UDP?

116
 Application Layer
• Support for user applications
• A separate module for each different
application
– e.g. HTTP, SMTP, telnet

117
Introduction to link layer protocols

Traditionally four protocols have been defined

for the data-link layer to deal with flow and
error control:
– Simple,
– Stop-and-Wait,
– Go-Back-N, and (Will be discussed in Unit 4)
– Selective-Repeat (Will be discussed in Unit 4)

118
 Simple Protocol
• The simple protocol neither do flow control nor do error
control.
• We assume that the receiver can immediately handle any
frame it receives.
• In other words, the receiver can never be overwhelmed
with incoming frames.
• Below figure shows the layout for this protocol.
• The DLL at the sender gets a packet from its network layer,
makes a frame out of it, and sends the frame.
• The DLL at the receiver receives a frame from the link,
extracts the packet from the frame, and delivers the
packet to its network layer.
• The DLLs of the sender and receiver provide transmission
services for their network layers.
119
Simple Protocol

120
 Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• The Stop-and- Wait protocol uses both flow and error
control.
• The sender sends one frame at a time and waits for an
acknowledgment before sending the next one.
• To detect corrupted frames, we need to add a CRC to each
data frame.
• When a frame arrives at the receiver site, it is checked. If
its CRC is incorrect, the frame is corrupted and silently
discarded.
• The silence of the receiver is a signal for the sender that a
frame was either corrupted or lost.
• Every time the sender sends a frame, it starts a timer.
• If an acknowledgment arrives before the timer expires,
the timer is stopped and the sender sends the next frame.
121
 Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• If the timer expires, the sender resends the previous
frame, assuming that the frame was either lost or
corrupted.
• This means that the sender needs to keep a copy of
the frame until its acknowledgment arrives.
• When the corresponding acknowledgment arrives,
the sender discards the copy and sends the next
frame if it is ready.
• Below figure shows the outline for the Stop-and-
Wait protocol.
• Note that only one frame and one acknowledgment
can be in the channels at any time.
122
 Stop-and-Wait Protocol

Other DLL Protocols

• HDLC
• Point-to-Point Protocol (P2P)
• Multiple Access Protocols
Note: They will be discussed in unit 4 121
Noiseless & Noise Channels
Noiseless Channel
• An ideal channel in which no frames are lost,
duplicated or corrupted is regarded as Noiseless
Channel.
• Protocols belong to this channel are
– Simple & Stop-and-wait protocols
Noisy Channels
• Consider the normal situation of a communication
channel that makes errors. Frames may be either
damaged or lost completely.
• Protocols belong to this channel are
– ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request Protocols)
124
ADDRESSING
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols:
– physical address,
– logical address,
– port address, and
– application-specific address.
• Each address is related to a one layer in the
TCP/IP architecture, as shown in the following
Figure.

125
ADDRESSING

126
 ADDRESSING
Physical Addresses
• The physical address, also known as the link address, is the
address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is
the lowest-level address.
• The size and format of these addresses vary depending on
the network.
• For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical
address that is imprinted on the network interface card
(NIC).
• Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte
(2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below.
127
 ADDRESSING
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Physical
Addresses
• Physical addresses can be either
– Unicast (one single recipient),
– multicast (a group of recipients), or
– broadcast (to be received by all systems in the
network).
• Some networks support all three
addresses

128
 ADDRESSING
Logical Addresses
• Logical are necessary for
communications
addresses arethatindependent of
universal
underlying physical networks.
• Physical addresses are adequate
not in an internetwork environment
networks can
where have different address formats.
different
• A universal addressing system is needed in which
each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of
the underlying physical network.
• The logical addresses are designed for this purpose
129
 ADDRESSING
Port Addresses
• The end objective of Internet communication is a process
communicating with another process.
• For example, computer A can communicate with
computer C by using TELNET. At the same time, computer
A communicates with computer B by using the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP).
• For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we
need a method to label the different processes.
• In other words, they need addresses. In the TCP/IP
architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a
port address.
• A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

130
 ADDRESSING
Application-Specific Addresses
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses
that are designed for that specific application.
• Examples include the e-mail address (for example,
co_sci@yahoo.com) and the Universal Resource
Locator (URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).
• The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the
second is used to find a document on the World
Wide Web.
• These addresses, however, get changed to the
corresponding port and logical addresses by the
sending computer.
131
Network Layer Protocols
Network layer protocols:
– IPv4 is responsible for packetizing, forwarding,
and delivery of a packet.
– ICMPv4 helps IPv4 to handle some errors that may
occur in delivery.
– IGMP is used to help IPv4 in multicasting.
– ARP is used in address mapping and
– RARP is also used in address mapping but in
reverse

132
 ICMP V4
• ICMPv4 - The IPv4 has no error-reporting or error-
correcting mechanism
• The IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for host and
management queries
• The Internet Control Message Protocol version 4
(ICMPv4) has been designed to compensate for the
above two deficiencies
• ICMP MESSAGES
– Error-reporting messages report problems that a router
or a host (destination) may encounter when it processes
an IP packet.
– Query messages help a host or a network manager get
specific information from a router or another host.
133
 ICMP V4
General format of ICMP messages

134
 ICMP V4
Contents of data field for the error messages

135
ARP Idea
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to find the
MAC (Media Access Control) address of a device from its IP address. This
protocol is used when a device wants to communicate with another device on a
Local Area Network or Ethernet.
Whereas, In Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP), IP address is fetched
through server. Through RARP, (48-bit) MAC address of 48 bits mapped into (32-
bit) IP address.

Types of ARP
There are four types of Address Resolution Protocol, which is given below:
1) Proxy ARP
2) Gratuitous ARP
3) Reverse ARP (RARP)
4) Inverse ARP 134
ARP Idea

ARP in Ethernet Frame

ARP Message Format

138
Simple ARP Request/Reply

139
Proxy ARP

140
 Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol (RARP)

141
RARP Packet Format

142
RARP Request/Reply

143
RARP Problems

144
RARP Problems

145
Data Transmission
• Data transmission refers to the
transferring data between process of two
devices. or
• Data is transmitted from one more
devicedigital
to another in
analog or digital format.
• Basically, data transmission enables devices or
components within devices to speak to each other.
• There are two methods used to transmit data
between digital devices: serial transmission
and parallel transmission

146
Serial Data Transmission
• When data is sent or received using serial data
transmission, the data bits are organized in a specific
order, since they can only be sent one after another.
• The order of the data bits is important as it dictates
how the transmission is organized when it is
received.
• It is viewed as a reliable data transmission method
because a data bit is only sent if the previous data
bit has already been received.

147
Serial Data Transmission

148
 Serial Data Transmission
• Asynchronous Serial
Transmission Data bits can be sent at any point
in time. Stop bits and start bits are used
between data bytes to synchronize the
transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the
data is transmitted correctly. The time between
sending and receiving data bits is not constant,
so gaps are used to provide time between
transmissions.
149
 Serial Data Transmission
• The advantage of using the asynchronous method
is that no synchronization is required between the
transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more
cost effective method.
• A disadvantage is that data transmission can be
slower, but this is not always the case.
• Serial transmission is normally used for long-
distance data transfer. It is also used in cases
where the amount of data being sent is relatively
small. It ensures that data integrity is maintained
as it transmits the data bits in a specific order, one
after another. In this way, data bits are received in-
sync with one another
150
Serial Data Transmission
Synchronous Serial Transmission
Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in
time with a master clock. The data transmitter and
receiver both operate using a synchronized clock
frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are
not used. This means that data moves faster and
timing errors are less frequent because the transmitter
and receiver time is synced. However, data accuracy is
highly dependent on timing being synced correctly
between devices. In comparison with asynchronous
serial transmission, this method is usually more
expensive.

151
 Parallel Data Transmission
• When data is sent
using parallel data transmission, multiple data
bits are transmitted over multiple channels at
the same time.
• This means that data can be sent much faster
than using serial transmission methods.

152
 Parallel Data Transmission
• Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple
channels at the same time, the order in which a
bit string is received can depend on various
conditions, such as proximity to the data source,
user location, and bandwidth availability.
• Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen
below. In the first parallel interface, the data is
sent and received in the correct order.
• In the second parallel interface, the data is sent
in the correct order, but some bits were received
faster than others.
153
Parallel Data Transmission

154
Parallel Data Transmission
•The main advantages of parallel transmission over
serial transmission are:
- it is easier to program;
- data is sent faster.
Although parallel transmission can transfer data
faster, it requires more transmission channels than
serial transmission. This means that data bits can
be out of sync, depending on transfer distance and
how fast each bit loads.
•A simple of example of where this can be seen is
with a voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or
interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when
there is skipping or interference on a video stream.
155
Parallel Data Transmission
Parallel transmission is used when:
- a large amount of data is being sent;
- the data being sent is time-sensitive;
- and the data needs to be sent quickly.
•A scenario where parallel transmission is used to
send data is video streaming. When a video is
streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received
quickly to prevent a video pausing or buffering.
•Video streaming also requires the transmission of
large volumes of data.
•The data being sent is also time-sensitive as slow
data streams result in poor viewer experience.
156
Serial Vs Parallel

157
Unit – I End

158