Communication Systems II

EEE 413

Engr A. O. OJO
 Introduction
• What is communication?

• Electrical communication vs mass communication

• Overview of electrical communication

 Introduction to Signals
• A signal as the name implies is a set of information or data,
e.g. telephone or TV signal, that is a function of time.
• Signals may be processed further by systems, which may
modify them or extract additional information from them.
• For instance, RADAR signals can be used to determine the
range, velocity and nature of targets.
 Introduction to Signals
• How would you design a drone that will be indetectable for
RADAR systems?

• A system is an entity that receives a System

set of signals, processes them and
produces another set of signals
Software
(Output) Hardware
realization
(Algorithm,
coding, etc)
 Introduction to Signals

• Signals may be processed further by systems, which may

modify them or extract additional information from them.

• For instance, RADAR signals can be used to determine the

range, velocity and nature of targets.
 Introduction to Signals

• By properly processing the radar signal (the input), we can

appropriately estimate the future location of the target. Thus,
a system is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs) to
yield another set of signals (outputs).
• A system may be made up of physical components, as in electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic systems (hardware realization), or it may
be an algorithm that computes an output from an input signal
(software realization).
 Introduction to Signals

Signal Energy
• Since electrical signals are often functions of time, a signal
can be plotted to portray its information as a function of time.

• For example, the area under a signal can be considered a

possible measure of its size, because it takes into account of
not only the amplitude, but also the duration.
Introduction to Signals
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Energy (Cont’d)
• However, the quantification of a signal information using the
area under the curve could be overgeneralization and could
lead to defective conclusions as some signals may be centered
on zero such that the positive part of the signal cancels out
the negative part leading to “zero signal”.
Signal Energy (Cont’d)
In order to avoid this pitfall, we can instead define the
signal by the area under curve which is always
positive. We refer to this measure as the signal
energy , defined (for a real signal) as:
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Energy (Cont’d)
This definition can be generalized to a complex valued signal as
A child that calls his father a bad
cook, wants to hear the story of
how his mother left.

African proverb
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Power
• The signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful
measure of the signal size. A necessary condition for the
energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude tends to zero as
the magnitude of time tends to infinity. i.e.
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Power (Cont’d)

• If the amplitude of does not

tend to zero as the magnitude of
time tends to infinity, then the
signal energy is infinite.
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Power (Cont’d)
• A more meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case
would be the time average of the energy (if it exists), which is
the average power , defined (also for a real signal) by:
𝑇
2
1
𝑃 𝑔 = lim
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇
∫ 𝑔2 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
−
2
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Power (Cont’d)
• This definition can also be generalized for a complex signal as

Examples of complex
signals
• Characterization of the
Fourier Transform
• Blood velocity
estimations
• Modulation of signals in
Telecommunications
 Introduction to Signals
Signal Power (Cont’d)
• It should be observed that the signal power is the time
average (mean) of the signal amplitude squared. That is, the
mean-squared value of . Indeed, the square root of is the
familiar root mean square (rms) value of .
 Introduction to Signals
Examples
 Introduction to Signals

Solutions
The signal in Figure (a) tends to zero as the magnitude of time
tends to infinity. Therefore, the suitable measure for this signal is
its energy , given by
 Introduction to Signals

On the contrary, the signal in Figure (b) does not tend to zero as
the magnitude of tends to infinity. However, it is periodic, and
therefore its power exists. We can therefore use the signal power
equation to determine its power.
We can simplify the procedure for periodic signals by observing
that a periodic signal repeats itself regularly each period (2
seconds in this case). Therefore, averaging over an infinitely
large interval is identical to averaging it over one period. Thus,
 Introduction to Signals

Recall that the signal power is the square of its rms value.
Therefore, the rms value of this signal is .
 Introduction to Signals

Example 2
Determine the power and rms value of the following signals:
Introduction to Signals
( 𝑎 ) 𝑔 ( 𝑡 ) =𝐶 cos (𝜔 0 𝑡
Introduction to Signals
( 𝑎 ) 𝑔 ( 𝑡 ) =𝐶 cos (𝜔 0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
 Introduction to Signals
𝑇 𝑇
2 2 2 2
𝐶 𝐶
¿ lim
𝑇 →∞ 2𝑇
∫ 𝑑𝑡 + lim
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
∫ [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2
𝑇 𝑇
− −
2 2
• The first term on the RHS is equal to . Moreover, the second term is zero
because the integral appearing in this term represents the area under a
sinusoid over a very large time interval with tending to infinity. This area
is at most equal to the area of half the cycle because of cancelations of
the positive and negative areas of a sinusoid. The second term in this
area multiplied by as tends to infinity. Clearly, this term is zero and
 Introduction to Signals

• This shows that a sinusoid of amplitude has a power

regardless of the value of its frequency and phase . The rms
value is . If the signal frequency is zero (i.e. a dc or a constant
signal of amplitude ), it can be shown that the power is .
 Introduction to Signals

Hands-on
Determine the power and rms value of the following signal:
 Introduction to Signals
(b) In this case, the given signal is

Then the power is expressed as

𝑇
2
2 𝐶1 𝐶 2
lim
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇
∫ cos ( 𝜔 1 𝑡 +𝜃 1 ) cos ( 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜃 2 )
𝑇
−
2
 Introduction to Signals
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
2 2 2
1 1 2 𝐶1 𝐶 2
m
→∞ 𝑇
∫ 𝐶12 cos 2 ( 𝜔 1 𝑡 + 𝜃 1 ) 𝑑𝑡 +¿ lim
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇
∫ 𝐶 22 cos2 ( 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜃 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 + lim
𝑇 →∞ 𝑇
∫ cos ( 𝜔 1 𝑡 +𝜃 1 ) cos ( 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜃2 ) 𝑑𝑡 ¿
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
− − −
2 2 2

• The first and second integrals on the right-hand side are the
powers of the two sinusoids, which are and as found in
question (a).
• Now we show that the third term on the RHS is zero. Using a
trigonometric identity, this term, which is the product of the
two sinusoids, is equal to the sum of two sinusoids or
frequencies and . Thus, the third term is times the sum of
the areas under two sinusoids.
 Introduction to Signals

Now, the area under any sinusoid over a large time interval is at
most equal to the area under half the cycle because of
cancelations of positive and negative areas as argued in part (a).
So the third term vanishes because tends to infinity, and we
have
 Introduction to Signals

And the value is

We can readily extend this result to a sum of any number of

sinusoids with distinct frequencies .
 Convolution
Convolution
• For a linear time-invariant (LTI) system depicted by the
following diagram,

• Such that
 Linear Systems
Linear System
For a system to be linear, it must satisfy the principle of
superposition and proportionality such that if a system is
represented by

And

Then for the system to be linear, the following must hold

 Time-Invariant System
Time-Invariant System
A time invariant system is a system whose output at a
time is not an explicit function of . That is, the output
of the system does not depend on the time the input is
impressed.
 Time-varying vs Time Invariant

Time-invariant Time-varying

If the input is delayed, such that If the input is delayed first, the output
becomes

If we delay the output too, such that However, if the output is delayed,

The RHS of Equations (1) and (2) are RHS of Equations (1) and (2) are not equal
equal
 Component of a Signal
Two real signals and can be represented as a function of one another
over an interval and . Such that we can write:

Where is a signal component that guarantees best approximate

scenario.
To minimize the error in the case of Equation (1) above, we can have
 Component of a Signal

Because Equation (2) is a definite integral, is only a function of

and not .
As in many physical domains, a necessary condition for to be
minimized is that
 Component of a Signal

So,
 Component of a Signal

Now, we can proceed by writing:

Where is the energy of Signal . Thus, it implies that we can represent a

signal as a function of the component/energy of another signal .
 Component of a Signal
As an example, consider the signal shown below:
 Component of a Signal
If we want to approximate in terms of , then we’ll write

In this case;

So,
 Component of a Signal
Using Equation (3);

Therefore,
 Communication Channel
Communication Channels
The transmission of information across a communication
network is accomplished in the physical layer by means of
a communication channel.
 Communication Channel
Communication Channels
 Communication Channel
Communication Channels
The transmission of information across a communication
network is accomplished in the physical layer by means of
a communication channel.
 Communication Channel
Depending on the mode of transmission, we may
distinguish two basic groups of communication channels:
Channels based on guided propagation and those based
on free-space propagation. The first group includes
telephone channels, coaxial cables, and optical fibres. The
second group include wireless broadcast channels, mobile
radio channels, and satellite channels. These six channels
are described as follows:
 Telephone channel
A telephone network uses circuit switching to establish an end-to-
end communication link on a temporary basis. The primary
purpose of the network is to ensure that the telephone
transmission between a speaker at one end of the link and a
listener at the other end is an acceptable substitute for face-to-face
conversation. In this form of communication, the message source is
the sound produced by the speaker’s ear.
 Telephone Channel
The telephone channel however supports only the transmission of
electrical signals. Accordingly, appropriate transducers are used at
the transmitting and receiving ends of the system. Specifically, a
microphone is placed near the speaker’s mouth to convert back
into acoustic form by means of a moving coil receiver placed near
the listener’s ear. Present day designs of these transducers have
been perfected so as to respond well to the frequencies ranging
from to . The telephone channel is a bandwidth-limited channel.
Telephone Channel
 Telephone Channel
The restriction on bandwidth arises from the requirement of
sharing the channel among a multitude of users at any instance. A
speech signal (male or female) is essentially limited to a band from
to in the sense that frequencies outside this band do not
contribute much to articulation efficiency. This frequency band may
therefore be viewed as a rough guideline for the passband of a
telephone channel that provides a satisfactory service. An
important entity for communication channels is the term called
“Insertion loss”. Insertion loss is defined as
 Telephone Channel
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ( 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 )=10 log 10
( )
𝑃0
𝑃𝐿
 Telephone Channel
Where is the power delivered to a load through the channel and is
the power delivered to the same load when it is connected directly
to the source. Another term, which can also be used to evaluate
efficiency on the channel is “envelope delay”. Envelope delay is
defined as the negative derivative of the phase response with
respect to the angular frequency
 Telephone Channel
Task
Discuss the following terms and state their relevance in
communication systems
– Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
– Quality of Service (QoS)
– Dispersion
 Telephone Channel

The telephone channel is built using twisted pair for signal

transmission. A twisted pair consisted of two solid copper
conductors, each of which is encased in a polyvinylchloride (PVC)
sheath. Typically, each pair has twist rate of to twists per foot
(why is the number of twists limited?) and a characteristic
impedance of to . Twisted pairs are naturally susceptible to
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor and an outer
conductor separated by a dielectric insulating material. Typically, a
coaxial cable has a characteristic impedance of or . Compared to a
twisted-pair cable, a coaxial cable offers greater degree of
immunity to EMI. Moreover, because of their much higher
bandwidth, coaxial cables can support the transmission of digital
data at a much higher bit rates than twisted pairs.
 Coaxial Cable

Rates up to are feasible using coaxial cables with being the

standard. Whereas twisted pair cables are limited to point-to-point
communication, coaxial cables can serve as multiple access
communication medium, as well as community antenna television
(CATV).
 Optical Fibre

Optical Fibre
An optical fibre is a dielectric waveguide that transports light
signals from one place to another just as a twisted pair or coaxial
cable transport electrical signals. It consists of a central core within
which the propagating electromagnetic field is confined and which
is surrounded by a cladding layer, which is itself surrounded by a
thin protective jacket. The core and cladding are both made of
pure glass, whereas the jacket is made of plastic.
Optical Fibre
 Optical Fibre

• Optical fibres have unique characteristics that make them highly

attractive as communication channel.
• Enormous potential bandwidth, resulting from the use of
optical carrier frequencies around ; with such a high carrier
frequency and a bandwidth roughly equal to 10 percent of the
carrier frequency, the theoretical bandwidth of a lightwave
system is as high as , which is indeed very large.
• Low transmission losses, as low as
 Optical Fibre

• Immunity to EMI which is an inherent characteristic of an optical

fibre viewed as a dielectric waveguide.
• Small size and weight, characterized by a diameter not greater
than that of a human hair.
• Ruggedness and flexibility, exemplified by very high tensile
strengths and the possibility of being bent or twisted without
damage.
• Raw material (sand) is cheap and readily available.
 Wireless Broadcast Channels

Wireless Broadcast Channels

Wireless broadcast channels support the transmission of radio and
television signals. The information-bearing signal, representing the
speech, music, or pictures, is modulated onto a carrier frequency
that identifies the transmitting station. The transmission originates
from an antenna that acts as the transition or matching unit
between the source of the modulated signal and electromagnetic
waves in free space.
 Wireless Broadcast Channels

The main objective in designing the antenna is to excite the waves

in the required direction or directions, as efficiently as possible. At
the receiving end, an antenna (mostly of superheterodyne type) is
used to pick up the radiated waves thereby establishing a
communication link with the transmitter.
 Mobile Radio Channel
The term mobile radio is usually meant to encompass terrestrial
situations where a radio transmitter or receiver is capable of being
moved, regardless of whether it actually moves or not. In the terrain of a
city, there are trees, buildings and other structures that may make it
impossible for the establishment of line-of-sight between the transmitter
and the receiver as the signals bounce off these structures enroute the
receiver. This results in a multipath situation whereby multiple
propagation paths with different time delays. The mobile radio channel
may therefore be viewed as a linear time-varying channel that is statistical
in nature.
 Satellite Channel
A satellite communication channel offers the advantage of broad-
area coverage in both a continental and intercontinental sense
(guaranteeing reliable transmission links and wide transmission
bandwidth). Moreover, access to remote areas not covered by
other communication channels is also a distinctive feature of
satellites. In many communication satellites, the satellites are
positioned in geostationary orbit.
Satellite Channel
 Satellite Channel
Geostationary orbits satisfy two requirements;
• First, the orbit is geosynchronous, which requires the satellite
orbits the earth in 24 hours (i.e. the satellite is synchronous with
the earth’s rotation).
• Second, the satellite is placed in orbit directly above the equator
in an eastward heading direction (i.e. it has zero inclination).
Viewed from the earth, a satellite in the geostationary orbit
appears to be stationary in the sky.
 Satellite Channel
In typical satellite communication systems, a message signal is
transmitted from the earth station via an uplink to a satellite,
amplified in a transponder circuitry aboard the satellite, and then
re-transmitted from the satellite via a downlink to another earth
station. The most popular frequency band for satellite
communication is for uplink and for the downlink.
 Satellite Channel
• This frequency band offers the following attributes:
• Relatively inexpensive microwave equipment
• Low attenuation due to rainfall
• Insignificant sky background noise; the sky background noise
(due to random noise emissions from galactic, solar, and
terrestrial sources) reaches its lowest level between and .
 Satellite Channel
In summary, a communication channel is central to the operation of
a communication system. Its properties determine both the
information-carrying capacity of the system and the quality of
service offered by the system.