Sports Psychology

Option B
B.1.1 Define the term personality
• Research is wide reaching but links between personality and
performance in sport are still inconclusive
• Word personality comes from the Latin word- persona, which refers
to a theatrical mask used by actors to show different identities
or roles
• Personality: the patterns, thoughts and feelings and the way we
interact with the environment and other people the make us a unique
person.
IB definition of personality
• …'those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which
distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the
same time permit a comparison between individuals' (Gross 1992)

• Having relatively stable and enduring patterns of behaviour allow us

to develop, forge and maintain relationships
3 Theories 1. Trait
2. Social learning
3. Interactionist
Can a study of personality make us healthier
and perform better at sport?
• Psychometric tools to measure aspects of personality- (Eysenck's
extrovert personality questionnaire (EPQ), Cattell's 16PF)
• Despite substantial research – psychologist are yet to determine what
types of behaviour are associated with elite performance
• Rather than consider personalities' that have high and low value in
relation to performance psychologists seek to create change- how can
maximise an individual's performance in a specific activity?
Trait theory-(Eysenck)
Personality is inherent and is within the athletes genes, inherited from
their parents.
This theory maintains that all behaviour is innate and a person has a
natural tendency to act in any given situation.
These behaviours are consistent and can be measured through
questionnaires (CATTELLS 16 PF).
The problem with this theory is that it does not take into account
adapting behaviour to the environment or that behaviour is not always
predictable.
Stable and unstable personality
traits-
Trait approach to personality
• Stable- a personality characteristic of
someone who does not swing from one
emotion to another but is usually constant in
their emotional behaviour (calmness in any
situation-constant)
• Unstable or neurotic personality trait- a
personality characteristic of someone who is
highly anxious and has unpredictable
emotions (emotional aggressiveness may
differ depending on the environment)
Type A & B
personalities
• All opposing traits- on a continuum
• Narrow band theory
• A characterised by – impatience, intolerance,
high stress level
• B characterised by- relaxed, tolerant, lower
personal stress
• Is this helpful knowledge for a coach?
Anxiety (B3.6 more
detail)
• A negative emotional state closely
related to arousal. It is experiencing
apprehension and being aware that
high arousal linked to our fears and
worries
• State Anxiety- anxiety that is felt in a
particular situation (A-state) 2 types
1. Somatic- the body's response-tension,
increase heart rate
2. Cognitive-psychological worry over the
situation
Knowledge of a performers state anxiety
can help a person to develop strategies to
cope in stressful competitive situations-
penalty taking
Extroversion/Introversion/Arousal
• Extroversion- A personality characteristic or
trait of a person who seeks social situations
and likes excitement but lacks
concentration
• Introversion- A personality characteristic or
trait of a person who does not seek social
situations and likes peace and quiet, but is
good at concentrating
• Arousal- The 'energised state' or the
readiness for action that motivates us to
behave in a particular way
 RAS- a way of
explaining
introversion and
extroversion
• RAS- reticular activating system
• Extroverts seem to have an RAS that inhibits
or reduces the effects the of external sensory
stimuli, which lead to areas of the brain
experiencing low levels of arousal. Therefore,
extroverts seek more external stimulation to
achieve higher levels of internal arousal and
will be more out going to achieve this
• Introverts have high levels of arousal naturally
occuring within their brains so tend to avoid
external stimulation. Therefore, introverts are
likely to be shy or avoid social situations.
Social learning theory Bandura 1977/1997/2001-
capacity to learn without reinforcement
• https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
• Personality is a product of learned behaviour
• Capacity to learn by observation, even in the absence of reward
(Pervin et al 2005)
• Read the article and highlight the key points
• How does learning take place
• What is a significant other?
• What processes take place for behaviours to change?
Attention, Retention, reproduction, motivation
In 1977, social cognitive psychologist Albert Bandura discovered
that people learn through watching others’ behavior and the
outcomes (L., 2019). From this discovery came the Social Learning
Theory, which can assure trainers that it is not a bad idea to let
students watch and learn from others’ mistakes. The key to the
Social Learning Theory is that people must have motivation to
emulate the actions of others. In this case, part of their motivation
comes from wanting to succeed in training
Attention-Retention-
Reproduction-Motivation

Attention-
1. Imitate a demonstration
2. Pay attention to demonstration
3. Focus on important cues
4. Amount of attention will be
influenced by perceived
attractiveness of the model
5. Personal characteristics important-
attention span and incentives
 Retention

Observer must be able to They need to create a mental Mental rehearsal can improve
remember the model picture retention of the mental image
Motor reproduction

1. Observer must be physically able to imitate the

skill being observed.
2. Demonstration should therefore be matched to
the capabilities of the observer
3. Feedback during future practices will be
important if motor reproduction is to eventually
match the model
Motivation

LEVEL OF MOTIVATION OF
THE OBSERVER IS
CRUCIAL IF THEY ARE
GOING TO IMITATE THE
PERFORMANCE

EXTERNAL
REINFORCEMENT OF THE
MODEL WILL INCREASE
THE MOTIVATION TO
IMITATE IT
This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-SA.
Key terms- SLT
Bandura 1977
This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND.

• Social learning- a perspective on personality theory that suggests personality and

associated behaviour are determined by situation or social environment rather than a series
of traits or biological determinants. This theory shows that our personalities are created
through a process of observing others and imitating their behaviour, especially is
reinforcement is available.
• Significant others- people who are highly significant to us, often called role models. Even if
we may not agree with their behaviour, we have atendency to copy them. Their behaviour
represents what we should ourselves be doing therefore we copy and imitate it.
B.1.3 Discuss the interactionist approach to
personality
• Most psychologists feel that both trait and the social learning theory
approaches have some value- we are all born with certain personality
characteristics but some of these can be modified by interacting with the
environment
• This has resulted in the Interactionist approach
• Believe- we have certain traits which appear consistently, but on many
occasions our trait interact with environmental factor in a given situation
and this in turn affects our personalities and behaviour. This explains
how personalities seemingly change
• A person may be shy and retiring off the court in tennis then be loud and
brash during a game
Lewin- simplistic but useful way
of understanding the interactionist
approach
Hollander's structure of personality
 The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make a human
unique (Hollander)
3 levels of our personality that interact
Psychological core
• Most internal level
• Thought to be “true self”
• Most difficult to research
• Stable and relatively constant over time
Typical responses
• Changeable
• Learned behaviors
• Modified as person responds to environmental situations
• Reflect the make up of the personality core
Role-related behavior
• Most external level
• Dynamic and changeable
• May have to adjust to fulful many different roles in one day
• Direct consequence of the immediate environment
B.1.4 Outline issues with the
measurements of personality
Data collection
• Interviews
• Observation
• Questionnaire
Important to understand how a
psychologist may use the information
gathered from different sources
Important factor for the psychologist
is to understand the source of bias
L-Data
Lifetime history
• IQ test, academic performance at school, achievements in other
hobbies; where someone grew up, who raised them, family criminal
records or use of illegal substances
• Consider which data to use to build up a pattern of behavior over
time to determine why individuals behave the way they do and why
they made certain choices that affected their lives and lives of those
related to.
O-data
Observations from knowledgeable others including parents and friends
• Collected using questionnaires designed to focus on a specific facet of
the target individual’s personality
• BASIC-ID – allows researcher to develop a considered picture of how
an individual is functioning in a particular setting
• Things to consider – how reliable is the questionnaire, what are the
biases of the people providing the information
T-data
• Experimental procedures and standardized tests; assess someone’s
suitability for a specific occupational role
S-data
Information provided by the individual
• Self report data can be inaccurate – individual may want you to
evaluate them in a favorable light and present themselves more
flattering though inaccurate – self-presentation
• Inaccurate due to tendency among individuals referred to as denial –
substance abuse problems or financial debt mounting can erect
mental barriers to prevent them from assessing their true emotional
and behavioral state
Issues
Data must be reliable Are they of value in
– must understand Interviews -Are they assessing a person’s Psychometric self
the confidence limits reliable and valid? sporting ability? questionnaires
of data working with Questionnaires

Personality tests- are Observation difficult

they appropriate for to remain objective Secret observation is Validity and Reliability
what researcher which will affect unethical Issues
wants to gain? behavior

Confidentialty, use of
Ethical Issues results, prediction of
performance
B.1.5 Evaluate the issue in personality
research and sport performance
• Consider athlete vs. non-athlete: may discourage non-sports people
from attempting sports that don’t “fit” their personality 
• Personality and sport type: if a personality is assigned to a sport,
those not demonstrating will be less likely to take up the sport as they
do not think that they fit the stereotype of the sport
• Predicting performance: implications of predicting performance,
rather than it be a natural progression and taking into consideration
environmental factors
How to revise-
note taking in
different forms
1. Mind map
2. Revision notes- linear
3. Ppt- key terms

Each group to produce well

presented and coherent
revision material
•B.2 Motivation in Sport and Exercise
B.2.1 Define the term motivation.
• Internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our
behavior (Sage, 1974)
• Direction and intensity of one’s effort (Sage, 1977)
-Direction of effort – refers to whether an individual is attracted to, seeks
out, or approaches certain situations
-Intensity – how much effort a person exerts in a particular situation
• Internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over
time
• “what gets you going, keeps you going, and determines where youre
trying to go” (Slavin, 2003)
B.2.2 Outline the types of motivation
Intrinsic motivation
• comes from within the person
• associated with doing an activity for itself and for the pleasure and
satisfaction derived from participation
Intrinsic motives
Excitement
Fun
Enjoyment
Chance to improve skill
B.2.2 Outline the types of motivation
Extrinsic motivation – results from external rewards
Extrinsic motives-
• Money
• Trophies
• Prizes
• Non-tangibles - praise, status
B.2.3 Discuss the issues associated with the use of
intrinsic & extrinsic motivators in sports & exercise
How do extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivation?
• Additive principle – intrinsic motivation can be boosted by extrinsic
motivators; not always a good idea; the reward provides positive
information about the performer’s level of competence
• Extrinsic rewards seen as controlling of behavior
• Extrinsic rewards provide information about level of performance
Deci & Ryan (1985) proposed viewing motives as intrinsic or extrinsic was too simplistic
and developed a continuum of motivation called self-determination theory
Intrinsic
• Player may lose interest
• Difficult to maintain levels of interest
Extrinsic
• Only want to play for material rewards
• Decreases intrinsic motivation
• Want to win, less focus is put on personal improvement or more
likely to avoid difficult competitions
Psychological needs that motivate human
behaviour

• Autonomy – make our own decisions, be in control of one’s own

behavior (exercise because you want to, not because you are told to
do so)
• Competence – need to feel competent and able to accomplish things
(master sports skill or improve expertise in activity)
• Relatedness – need to relate to others and feel a sense of belonging
(being part of a team and feeling accepted and valued by teammates)
B.2.4 Describe Atkinson’s model of
Achievement Motivation
Relates strongly to personality
• The degree to which a player accepts the prospect of a challenge in sport
• An individual's motivation to strive for success
• The extent to which we approach and welcome challenge and competition, or avoid
competitive situations
Motivation can be:
• Instinctive- a player always wants to compete regardless of the event
• Nurtured through experience- a player can be confident and competitive in the event he/she
has become successful in
• Motivation is a balance between the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure
• In sports, athlete will enter approach-avoidance conflict – motivated by success but also by the
fear of failure
Achievement Motivation =
The desire to succeed – The fear of failure
• High AM – desire to succeed > fear of failure
• Low AM – fear of failure > desire to succeed
Relates strongly to personality - the degree to which a player accepts the prospect of a challenge in sport;

aka an individual's motivation to strive for success. It is the extent to which we approach and welcome challenge and competition or avoid competitive situations.

NACH - welcome challenge and competition

• will take a penalty shot

• will be willing to take on tough competitors
• will be calm in limelight
• accept challenges
• demonstrate task persistence
• be quick and efficient
• take risks
• welcome feedback
• take personal responsibility for actions
• try harder after failure
NAch v NAf
NAF - avoid competitive situations
• avoid volunteering for stressful situation
• wary of taking on tough competitors
• will volunteer others as they will be too nervous
• avoid responsibility
• take an easy option
• give up after failure
Sport specific example of achievement
motivation
• Example: In a football final the score is 1-1 and a last-minute penalty is awarded.
The player who refuses to take the penalty fears he/she may fail; losing self-esteem.
He has the motive to avoid failure (Naf)
The player who wants to take the penalty wants the glory and is driven by the
motive to succeed; gaining self-esteem. He has the motive to achieve success
(Nach)

Motivation can be:

• Instinctive- a player always wants to compete regardless of the event

• Nurtured through experience- a player can be confident and competitive in the

event he/she has become successful in
B.2.5 Outline Goal Orientation Theory
• Achievement Goal Theory refers to how people evaluate/judge their competence and define successful
accomplishments. It refers to personal interpretations they have about what achievement means to
them within a specific task.

• Individuals focus on mastering the task, learning skills, exerting effort, and self improvement.

• Ego-Involvement: Individuals focus on demonstrating superior ability compared to others, as well as

winning in competitions with less effort than others.
According to this theory, three factors combine to determine motivation:

• Achievement goals

• Perceived ability

• Achievement behavior
Task v Ego orientated
• Ego-Oriented: measure their success based on beating others and
being the best (Extrinsic motivation)
Task-Oriented: measure their success against themselves, how well
they complete a task (personal bests) (Intrinsic motivation)
 B.2.5 Outline Goal Orientation Theory.
• Goal Orientation Theory: According to Nicholls (1989) there are two types
1. Outcome oriented goals: focus on winning, avoid losing.
2. Task-oriented goals: focus on mastery of skills achievement goals. What are they?
What might an athlete be focused on in each case?
• Goal Orientation Theory: Explain how two athletes with different goal orientations
might respond to losing a race
• 1. Outcome oriented: failure → reinforces negative schemas → increased chance of
failure
2. Task oriented: failure → learning opportunity → develop skills → increased chance
of success
• Goal Orientation Theory: what 3 factors combine to determine motivation?
1. achievement goals
2. perceived ability
3. achievement behaviour
 B.2.6 Describe Attribution
Theory and its application
to sport and exercise.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xdys
eQ1qbak

• Weiners theory of Attribution Theory

Attribution theory examines the reasons
for an athlete's success or failure, helping
us to understand their actions and
motivation.
•Attribution theory looks at the reasons
given by coaches and players themselves
to account for successes and failures in
sport.
•There are strong links between attribution
and achievement motivation.
TWO ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLES
• What do they both attribute to their success / failure?
• This is called Attribution!
Attribution re-training
Attribution retraining involves changing the performer’s perception of
the causes of failure.
The belief that poor ability is the cause of failure is changed to a belief
that a lack of effort was the most important attributional factor in
failure.
Attribution retraining, therefore, involves focusing the reason for failure
onto internal / unstable and controllable factors.
 Attribution retraining can help
to raise confidence, convert
avoidance behaviour into
approach behaviour, and
encourage mastery orientation
within an individual.
Attribution retraining will
promote the likelihood of
lifelong sport participation.
• How can we retrain
attributions?

Why should we retain the way we

attribute success and failure?
B.3 Mental Preparation for Sport: Anxiety,
Arousal, and Performance
B.3 Mental Preparation for
Sport: Anxiety, Arousal, and
Performance
B.3.1 Define the term arousal
Arousal is an alertness or state of readiness (ranging from deep sleep to intense
alertness) of the body for an action
• It is neutral and can be triggered by both pleasant/positive and
unpleasant/negative situations
• It is how motivated/interested/excited an athlete is prior to and throughout the
performance
• Continuum ranging from a very deep sleep-like state to excessive and uncontrolled
activation of numerous body systems that may cause a panic attack
Autonomic arousal-immediate response to a stressor
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) inhibits non-essential physiological systems
which accelerates fight or flight responses
B.3.2 Describe the theoretical approaches to
arousal
Drive Reduction Theory
• Developed by Clark Hull (1943)
• 1 st theory for motivation  States that humans are motivated to
resuce the state of tension caused when certain biological needs are
not satisfied
• Helps explain behaviours that have strong biological components eg:
driven to drink a glass of water to reduce the sensation of thirst
B.3.2 Describe the
theoretical approaches
to arousal

Inverted-U Hypothesis
• For complex tasks there was
an optimal level of arousal
above and below wheich
performance levels would
decrease
• Theory – arousal is increased
then performance improved,
but only to a point
B.3.2 Describe the theoretical
approaches to arousal
Catastrophe Theory “choking”
• Pressure seems insurmountable and athlete will fall victim to not
performing task
• Interaction between physiological arousal and cognitive anxiety
• Sudden shifts in behavior arising from small changes in circumstances
• Why it occues is not yet known
B.3.3. Draw and label a graphical representation
of the arousal performance relationship.
• Be able to draw and explain the graphs
1. Drive reduction theory
2. Inverted U theory
3. Catastrophe theory
B.3.4 Discuss the emotions that may influence an athlete’s
performance or experience in a physical activity
(+) Positive and (-) Negative emotions can have +/- effect on
performance
(+) Positive Emotions Excitement, relief, and pride Often lead to
improved performance
(-) Negative Emotions Anger, guilt, shame, anxiety, and boredom Lead
to decreased performance

Do you think that there is a link to personality?

B.3.5 Define the term anxiety
• Anxiety is a negative emotion of apprehension and tension (stress)
which includes irrational thoughts, fear of failure, self-doubt and
worry
B.3.6 Distinguish between cognitive anxiety
and somatic anxiety
COGNITIVE ANXIETY
Characterized by thoughts and perceptions of worry/doubt and negative expectations
(mind), about performance, self-evaluation, & evaluation by others.
(-) effect
• Confusion/irrational thoughts
• Lack of concentration
• Nervousness
• Apprehension
(+) effect
• Faster information processing
• Increased attention
B.3.6 Distinguish between cognitive
anxiety and somatic anxiety
• SOMATIC ANXIETY

• Relates our perceptions of our bodily state (physiological arousal)

• Provide signal to individual they are anxious
B.3.7 Distinguish between trait anxiety and
state anxiety.
• Trait (innate) anxiety – relatively enduring disposition that causes
people at the high end of the continuum to view a wide range of non-
dangerous circumstances as threatening
• State (situation) anxiety – temporary negative emotion of
apprehensiveness and tension experienced in threatening situations
and is situation specific
B.3.8 Evaluate how anxiety is measured
Both state and trait anxiety affect performance; psychologists have
therefore tried to devise ways of measuring a person’s state and trait
anxiety.
• Physiological measures of somatic anxiety (measurement of heart
rate, muscle tension, sweating)
• Observation
• Questionnaires
SCAT (Sport Competition Anxiety Test)
(Martens, 1977)
Aimed to find out which competitors are likely to become too anxious in a
competitive situation
• Scoring from a sport specific situation gives an indication of that person’s level of
state anxiety in competition-specific situations
• Four factors are related to competitive anxiety:
1. Individual differences in how performers interact with different situations - some
events are more important than others and therefore cause more anxiety
2. The different types of anxiety (state and trait) that a performer experiences
3. A specific anxiety trait that only occurs in competitive situations
4. The competition itself, which involves interaction between the performer's
personality traits, their own competitive trait anxiety and the specific situation
involved
CSAI - 2
• Measured three components: cognitive, somatic, self-efficacy
• Given out before competition but more than once, such as a week
before, a day before, and half an hour before this
• Enables researchers to discover baseline levels of anxiety and
compare it with pre-competition levels to see if they differ
STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory)
• Is a self-report questionnaire in which people rate how nervous they
feel both in general and in specific situations
• The scoring system for the questions gives an indication of both the
state anxiety and the trait anxiety of the performer
B.3.9 Describe
the stress process
in sport
• Stress is a process that
involves one’s perception of
an imbalance between the
demands of the environment
(physical and/or
psychological)and one’s
response capability
(response), under conditions
where failure to meet the
demands
Psychological Skill Training
B.4.1 Discuss psychological skills training
(PST)
• Systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills
• Individually designed combination of methods selected to attain psychological skill
needs
• No single PST package, each program must be individualized based on psychological
state of the individual and the sport o to assemble a successful PST program, one must
distinguish between PST skills and PST methods
• PST skills – psychological qualities or attributes that need to be developed –
confidence, concentration
• PST method – tool that will be used to improve the PST skill
Goal Setting, Mental Imagery, Relaxation Techniques, Self-Talk
• Sports Psychologist will employ more than one method to be more effective with
implementing a PST program
PST
• PST is:
1. Learnable
2. Should benefit everyone who is in a performance setting
3. Should complement other preparations
• PST is NOT:
1. Just for elite athletes
2. Just for problem athletes
3. A quick fix solution
• 3 phases of Psychological Skill Training
1. Education
2. Acquisition
3. Practice
B.4.2 Outline Goal Setting
• Goal setting helps with motivation to the individual & can give self-
confidence to the individual
• SMARTER Goal
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Timely
Evaluate
Review
Set a combination of outcome, performance,
and process goals
1. Outcome Goals
• Results or objectives to be achieved
• Involves comparisons with others
Eg:I want to win the game, beat the number 1 seed, get selected for
the NBA All-star team
2. Performance Goals
• Some measure of personal performance
Eg: I want to make 8/10 (80%) tackles in a game, run the race in a given
time, keep the pitch count to 60, throw no interceptions.
Set a combination
of outcome, performance, and process goals
• Action/Process Goals
Things that need to be done to achieve desired outcomes
Eg: I will practice my tackling 20 times a session, create a race
plan ,positive mental imagery, quality training program

Outcome goals give direction while action goals move us in that given
direction
B.4.3 Evaluate Mental Imagery
• Mental imagery is a symbolic sensory experience that may occur in
any sensory mode
• Mental rehearsal is the employment of imagery to mentally practice
an act or a technique
• Issues when developing imagery skills
Using all the senses, Internal/external imagery, Imagery control
• Imagery uses
Improve technique, while injured, learning a new skill, motivational
issues
B.4.4 Outline Relaxation Techniques
Can promote both physical and cognitive relaxation
Centering
-A term often associated with meditation
-Taking time to be in the moment, to focus, to calm yourself
Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
-5,7, or 20 body areas
-Contract for 5 seconds and relax. Repeat 5X
-Pair the sensation to a clear blue sky
Meditation
B.4.5 Outline self-talk Techniques
• An internal dialogue
• Content
• Positive-negative
B.5.1 Outline the term talent
Talent is a multidimensional concept which is identified by multiple
characteristics which do not rest solely on genetics

Talent involves ability across several different fields such as:

Motor - Hand-eye coordination

Psychological - Mental resilience and tenacity
Environmental - The access to facilities and a climate that is conducive to
improving performance
Physiological - Speed and strength
Sociological - Parental support and interaction with teammates
B.5.2 Distinguish between talent identification (TI) and
multidimensional talent identification and development (TID)
processes
Traditional talent identification processes are generally limited to two different
stages:

1. Subjective assessment

Coaches observe as a player plays their sport and decides whether they see
potential for development

2. Physiological and anthropometric testing

Speed, height, weight, strength testing to determine whether an athlete could

perform at a higher level.
TID- focus on development
Talent identification and development focus more
upon the development of the athlete as they
interact with their environment and having the
resilience to deal with setbacks over a long period
of time
Multidimensional TID
Multidimensional talent identification and development
processes in sport are far more elaborate. Psychological
behaviours tend to facilitate this growth, such as:

Imagery, goal setting, self-talk, evaluation, high intensity

training (enjoying experience), failure and performance,
arousal control
Methods through which multidimensional TID occurs-
Monitoring progress and behaviour over time

Rather than taking a beep test score and ranking this, the coach may look at how the athlete goes at
improving their score over time and how their resilience is when doing the test in the rain

Balancing weaknesses in one area with strengths in another

Rather than dismissing a basketball player due to a lack of height, the coach would look to see if the
player had developed exceptional speed or power to overcome this setback and adversity.

Providing psychological skills training that improves psychological skills along with sport specific
skills

This allows coaches to see if the athlete is likely to develop through the stages of development and
if they are likely to progress to professional levels.

Generally TID identified athletes that tend to be able to adapt their performance better and have
overcome adversity and showed tenacity to remain in the sport, which leads to better results as
B.5.3 Explain the evolution of taken for
athlete development
Bloom (1985) and Cote (1999) suggest that the four stages of
development that an elite performer is likely to progress through are as
follows:
1. Initiation
2. Development
3. Mastery
4. Maintenance
Initiation-The athlete is identified as skilled and their
performance is monitored over a long period of time to assess
their psychological and physiological ability
Development-The athlete begins to prioritise their sport above
their other commitments and will sacrifice things to reach a
higher level and better their performance
Mastery-The athlete will be able to produce exceptional
performances, for instance making an international team,
demonstrating their elite ability at a world event
Maintenance-The athlete then must work to maintain this white
level of performance over a long period of time to increase the
longevity of their career
Different psychological behaviours (such as coach or parent-led versus
self-determined motivation) and sports participation goals (such as
enjoyment, skill development or performance mastery) will vary
according to the athlete's stage.
The existence of stages suggests that as athlete encounter
opportunities (such as the opportunity to train with a specialist coach,
increase in hours of deliberate practice), obstacles (such as injury) and
progressions (such as traditions to the next stage of development)
many aspects of their performance may become unstable.
The developing athlete uses psychological behaviours to cope with
these unstable periods. these behaviours are key to continued
development of the individual and consistent production of world-class
performances by elite athletes.
 B.5.4 Outline talent transfer for elite athletes changing to a second sport

Talent transfer is a reduction or cessation of participation in one sport in

one sport in order to pursue another sport that involves similar skills or
physiological requirements. It may be promoted by injury, a plateau in
performance, loss of motivation or retirement. Progress through the
stages of development in the new sport is usually reaped because the
athlete:

Has the capacity to use psychological behaviours to respond to

challenges. Can exploit existing physiological traits and motor skills. Has
improved motivation. Examples include changes from sprinting or cycling
to winter sports such as bobsleigh, and changes from gymnastics to
diving or pole vaulting
B.6.1 Describe self-determination theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) describes how the level and the
amount of energy that athletes devote to learning activities is a
dynamic continuum characterised by a balance between:
• Autonomy
• Competence
• Relatedness
Autonomy: making one's own decisions about what we do and being in
control of ourselves and our behaviours (eg. training because you want
to, not because someone says you should do)

Competence: feeling able to accomplish a task (e.g. completing cross

country course without stopping)

Relatedness: the feeling of a shared experience with others, of

belonging to and being accepted by a group (e.g.. being part of rugby
team)
B.6.2 Describe self-regulated learning
Self-regulated learning (SRL) refers to the processes that assist
learners in managing their own thoughts, behaviours and
emotions in order to control their own learning experiences.

SRL encourages athletes to become more independent in their

learning and so enhances learning outcomes. Athletes exert
this control by planning and regulating their own actions
towards their learning goals.
Four interdependent cyclical phases through which an athlete manages
their progression-

1) Forethought phase - the athlete performs goal-setting and planning

2) Monitoring phase - tracking progress and awareness of current

performance in relation to goals

3) Control phase - the athlete adapts to learning strategies to better

complete the task

4) Reflection phase - the athlete evaluates performance with respect to

goals and the effectiveness of the chosen strategy
B.6.3 Discuss the relationship between self-regulated
learning and motivation in sports (cycle)
Motivation is a critical factor in the self-regulated learning framework
Forethought phase - athletes who do not see value in tasks are less likely to spend much
time setting goals and planning strategies. Higher self-efficacy beliefs increase the use of
self-regulation strategies
Monitoring phase - Intrinsic motivation affects level of effort in completing tasks and
use of self-regulation strategies
Reflection phase - An athlete's causal attributions (factors athletes attribute to their
success or failure) affect whether they choose to engage in an activity and utilise self-
regulation strategies for similar future activities

Athletes who are motivated to learn are more likely to invest the time and
energy needed to learn and apply SRL skills. Similarly, athletes who are able to
successfully employ self-regulation strategies often become more motivated to
complete learning tasks