+

Chapter 7 Input/Output

William Stallings , Computer Organization and Architecture, 9 th Edition

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Objectives
 Why are peripherals not connected directly to the system bus?
 Why IO module is needed?
 How to control IO devices?
 How to increase IO operations?
 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Explain the use of I/O modules as part of a computer
organization.
 Understand the difference between programmed I/O and
interrupt-driven I/O and discuss their relative merits.
 Present an overview of the operation of direct memory access
(DMA).
 Explain the function and use of I/O channels.
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Contents
 7.1 External Devices
 7.2 I/O Modules
 7.3 Programmed I/O
 7.4 Interrupt-Driven I/O
 7.5 Direct Memory Access
 7.6 I/O Channels and Processors
+ 4

Why are devices not connected to system

bus?
 There are a wide variety of peripherals with various methods of
operation. It would be impractical to incorporate the necessary logic
within the processor to control a range of devices.

 The data transfer rate of peripherals is often much slower than that of
the memory or processor. Thus, it is impractical to use the high-speed
system bus to communicate directly with a peripheral.

 The data transfer rate of some peripherals can be faster than that of
the memory or processor. Again, the mismatch would lead to
inefficiencies if not managed properly.

 Peripherals often use different data formats and word lengths than
the computer to which they are attached.
+ Generic
Model
of an I/O Module

Why an IO module is
needed?
• Interface to the
processor and memory
via the system bus or
central switch

• Interface to one or more

peripheral devices by
tailored data links
+ 6

7.1- External Devices

 Provide a means of exchanging

 Three categories:
data between the external  Human readable
environment and the computer  Suitable for communicating with the
computer user
 Attach to the computer by a link to  Video display terminals (VDTs),
an I/O module printers
 The link is used to exchange control,
status, and data between the I/O  Machine readable
module and the external device  Suitable for communicating with
equipment
 peripheral device  Magnetic disk and tape systems, sensors
and actuators (thiết bị khởi phát)
 An external device connected to an
I/O module  Communication
 Suitable for communicating with remote
devices such as a terminal, a machine
readable device, or another computer
+
External
Device
Block
Diagram
bộ chuyển đổi
+ Keyboard/Monitor Most common means of
computer/user interaction
8

User provides input through the

International Reference Alphabet keyboard
(IRA) The monitor displays data provided by
the computer
 Basic unit of exchange is the character
 Associated with each character is a code
Keyboard Codes
 Each character in this code is represented by a  When the user depresses a key it generates an
unique 7-bit binary code electronic signal that is interpreted by the
 128 different characters can be represented transducer in the keyboard and translated into
the bit pattern of the corresponding IRA code
 Characters are of two types:  This bit pattern is transmitted to the I/O
 Printable module in the computer
 Alphabetic, numeric, and special characters
that can be printed on paper or displayed on a  On output, IRA code characters are
screen transmitted to an external device from the I/O
 Control module
 Have to do with controlling the printing or  The transducer interprets the code and sends
displaying of characters
the required electronic signals to the output
 Example is carriage return
device either to display the indicated character
 Other control characters are concerned with or perform the requested control function
communications procedures
7.2-I/O Modules 9

Control and timing

Module Functions • Coordinates the flow of traffic

between internal resources and
external devices

Error detection Processor communication

• Involves command decoding,
• Detects and reports transmission
data, status reporting, address
errors
recognition

The major functions for

an I/O module fall into
the following categories:

Data buffering Device communication

• Performs the needed buffering
• Involves commands, status
operation to balance device and
information, and data
memory speeds
I/O Module Structure 10

IO Module
+ 7.3- Programmed I/O 11

 Three techniques are possible for I/O operations:

 Programmed I/O
 Data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module
 Processor executes a program that gives it direct control of the I/O operation
 When the processor issues a command it must wait until the I/O operation is complete
 If the processor is faster than the I/O module this is wasteful of processor time
 Interrupt-driven I/O
 Processor issues an I/O command, continues to execute other instructions, and is interrupted
by the I/O module when the latter has completed its work
 Direct memory access (DMA)
 The I/O module and main memory exchange data directly without processor involvement
+ 12

I/O Commands
 There are four types of I/O commands that an I/O module may receive
when it is addressed by a processor:

1) Control
- used to activate a peripheral and tell it what to do

2) Test
- used to test various status conditions associated with an I/O module and its
peripherals

3) Read
- causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from the peripheral and
place it in an internal buffer

4) Write
- causes the I/O module to take an item of data from the data bus and
subsequently transmit that data item to the peripheral
 13

Three
Techniques
for Input of a
Block of Data
 I/O Instructions
14

With programmed I/O there is a close correspondence between the I/O-related instructions that
the processor fetches from memory and the I/O commands that the processor issues to an I/O
module to execute the instructions

Each I/O device connected through I/O modules is given a unique

identifier or address

When the processor issues Memory-mapped I/O

The form of the an I/O command, the
instruction depends on command contains the
the way in which external address of the desired
devices are addressed device

Thus each I/O module There is a single address space for memory A single read line and a single write line are
must interpret the address locations and I/O devices needed on the bus
lines to determine if the
command is for itself
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I/O Mapping Summary

CPU MEM.

 Memory mapped I/O Io module

 Devices and memory share an address space
 I/O looks just like memory read/write Memory and IO
devices share a
 No special commands for I/O common system
 Large selection of memory access commands available bus

 Isolated I/O
 Separate address spaces 2 different system
buses for Memory
 Need I/O or memory select lines and IO devices
 Special commands for I/O MEM.
CPU
 Limited set

Io module
 16

Memory
Mapped
I/O

Isolated
I/O
Example

+
 7.4- Interrupt-Driven I/O
17

The problem with programmed I/O is that the processor has

to wait a long time for the I/O module to be ready for either
reception or transmission of data

An alternative is for the processor to issue an I/O command

to a module and then go on to do some other useful work

The I/O module will then interrupt the processor to request

service when it is ready to exchange data with the processor

The processor executes the data transfer and resumes its

former processing
+

Simple Interrupt
Processing

READ BY YOURSELF
PSW: Process Status Word
+

Changes
in Memory
and Registers
for an
Interrupt
 20
Design Issues

• Because there will be

multiple I/O modules
how does the
processor determine
Two design which device issued
issues arise in the interrupt?
implementing • If multiple interrupts
interrupt I/O: have occurred how
does the processor
decide which one to
process?
+ Device Identification 21

Four general categories of techniques are in common use:

 Multiple interrupt lines

 Between the processor and the I/O modules
 Most straightforward approach to the problem
 Consequently even if multiple lines are used, it is likely that each line will have multiple I/O
modules attached to it
 Software poll
 When processor detects an interrupt it branches to an interrupt-service routine whose job is to poll
each I/O module to determine which module caused the interrupt
 Time consuming

 Daisy chain (hardware poll, vectored)

 The interrupt acknowledge line is daisy chained through the modules
 Vector – address of the I/O module or some other unique identifier
 Vectored interrupt – processor uses the vector as a pointer to the appropriate device-service
routine, avoiding the need to execute a general interrupt-service routine first
 Bus arbitration (vectored)
 An I/O module must first gain control of the bus before it can raise the interrupt request line
 When the processor detects the interrupt it responds on the interrupt acknowledge line
 Then the requesting module places its vector on the data lines
+

Intel
82C59A
Interrupt
Controller

READ BY YOURSELF
+ Intel 82C55A 23

Programmable Peripheral Interface

READ BY YOURSELF
+
Keyboard/
Display
Interfaces to
82C55A

READ BY YOURSELF
 25
Drawbacks of Programmed and Interrupt-
Driven I/O

 Both forms of I/O suffer from two inherent drawbacks:

1) The I/O transfer rate is limited by the speed with

which the processor can test and service a device

2) The processor is tied up in managing an I/O

transfer; a number of instructions must be
executed for each I/O transfer

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 When large volumes of data are to be moved a more efficient
technique is direct memory access (DMA)
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7.5- Direct
Memory Access
Typical DMA
Module Diagram
 DMA Operation
Click icon to add picture 27

DMA

DMA

+ 7.12 shows where in the instruction cycle the processor may be suspended.
Figure
In each case, the processor is suspended just before it needs to use the bus.
The DMA module then transfers one word and returns control to the processor.
Note that this is not an interrupt; the processor does not save a context and do
something else. Rather, the processor pauses for one bus cycle. The overall effect
is to cause the processor to execute more slowly. Nevertheless, for a multiple-word
I/O transfer, DMA is far more efficient than interrupt-driven or programmed I/O.
+
Alternative
DMA
Configurations
8237 DMA Usage of System Bus
29

When DMA carries out, CPU is idle.

True or false?
8237 contains four DMA channels Data does not pass through and is not
• Programmed independently stored in DMA chip
• Any one active • DMA only between I/O port and
• Numbered 0, 1, 2, and 3 memory
Can do memory to memory• via
Notregister
between two I/O ports or two
memory locations
Fly-By DMA Controller
30
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Table 7.2 – Intel 8237A Registers 31

READ BY YOURSELF

E/D = enable/disable
TC = terminal count
+ 7.6- IO Channels and Processors 32

Evolution of the I/O Function

1. The CPU directly controls a 4. The I/O module is given direct access
peripheral device. to memory via DMA. It can now move
a block of data to or from memory
2. A controller or I/O module is without involving the CPU, except at
added. The CPU uses the beginning and end of the transfer.
programmed I/O without
interrupts. 5. The I/O module is enhanced to become
a processor in its own right, with a
3. Same configuration as in step 2 specialized instruction set tailored for
is used, but now interrupts are I/O
employed. The CPU need not
spend time waiting for an I/O 6. The I/O module has a local memory of
operation to be performed, thus
its own and is, in fact, a computer in its
increasing efficiency.
own right. With this architecture a
large set of I/O devices can be
controlled with minimal CPU
involvement.
+
I/O
Channel
Architecture
+ Exercises 34

 7.1- List three broad classifications of external, or

peripheral, devices.
 7.2- What is the International Reference Alphabet?
 7.3- What are the major functions of an I/O module?
 7.4- List and briefly define three techniques for
performing I/O.
 7.5- What is the difference between memory-mapped
I/O and isolated I/O?
 7.6- When a device interrupt occurs, how does the
processor determine which device issued the interrupt?
 7.7- When a DMA module takes control of a bus, and
while it retains control of the bus, what does the
processor do?
+ Summary
35

Input/Output
Chapter 7
 Direct memory access
 External devices
 Drawbacks of programmed and
interrupt-driven I/O
 Keyboard/monitor  DMA function
 Disk drive  Intel 8237A DMA controller
 I/O modules
 Module function  I/O channels and processors
 I/O module structure  The evolution of the I/O function
 Programmed I/O  Characteristics of I/O channels
 Overview of programmed I/O
 I/O commands
 The external interface
 Types of interfaces
 I/O instructions
 Point-to-point and multipoint
 Interrupt-driven I/O configurations
 Interrupt processing  Thunderbolt
 Design issues  InfiniBand
 Intel 82C59A interrupt controller
 Intel 82C55A programmable peripheral