Chapter 6– Mechanical

Properties of Metals
 Engineers are primarily concerned with the development and design
of machines, structures etc.

 These products are often subjected to forces/ deformations, resulting

in stresses/strains, the properties of materials under the action of
forces and deformations becomes an important engineering
consideration.

 The properties of materials when subjected to stresses and

strains are called “mechanical properties”. In other words the
properties that determine the behavior of engineering materials
under applied forces are called “mechanical properties”.
 The response of a material to applied forces depends on the
type and nature of the bond and the structural arrangement
of atoms, molecules or ions.

 Basic deformation types for load carrying materials are:

1. Elastic deformation (deformations are
instantaneously recoverable)
2. Plastic deformation (non-recoverable)
3. Viscous deformation (time dependent
deformation)
 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR

Field that addresses how materials or structures

respond to mechanical or thermal loads

Two fundamental responses

A material will either:

1 Deform 2• Fracture

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What is Deformation?
Shape
Change
Elastic Plastic

What is Fracture?
When something
separates into pieces.
Ductile Brittle
4
 Why Study???
 Need to know how a material will act under a
given load.
 Airplane wings, car axles, fork lift, etc.
 Must design for given loads to prevent
failure

Moore, OK 2013 F F

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 Terminology for Mechanical Properties
Stress, σ: Force or load per unit area of cross-section over which
the force or load is acting.

Strain, ε: Elongation change in dimension per unit length.

Types of Stress/Strain: Engineering, True, Tensile,

Compressive, Torsion, and Shear

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’ s Modulus E: The slope of the linear

part of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region

Poisson’s Ratio, ν: Ratio of lateral and axial strains

 What is Stress?

Engineering stress: σ = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to
speciment crosssection; A0 is cross-
sectional area (perpendicular to the
force) before application of the load.
 Types of Loading

Compressive
Tensile

Shear Tortional

8
Figure: (a) Tensile, compressive, shear and bending stresses.
(b) Illustration showing how Young’s modulus is defined for
elastic material.

9
 ENGINEERING STRESS
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft F
Ft Area, A
Area, A
Fs

Fs
Ft
Ft
 Fs Ft
Ao  F
Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m 2 or lb/in 2

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 COMMON STATES OF STRESS

• Simple tension:
cable

F F
Ao = cross-sectional
area (when unloaded)
eng  F
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao

eng eng

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 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
• Simple compression:

Ao

Note: compressive
)
 
F structure member (
< 0 here).
Ao

12
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES

• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0 h< 0

23
 TRUE STRESS
Engineering Stress = eng = force / original area = F/Ao
A F Deformation is considered to be a
RECALL: constant volume process
THEREFORE
A' Is the final
area, the same
Ao F as the initial
𝑙o area? NO!
𝑙o 𝑙 Another
definition
for stress
𝑙

True Stress = true = force / instantaneous area

F = F/A'
Volume is conserved
24
 What is Strain?

Engineering strain:

“STRAIN”
This implies distortion of an object!
( shape change)
Engineering strain: ε = / 100 %
Δl is change in length, lo is the original
length.

25
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral
strain:

   /2
Lo L L
Lo wo wo

• Shear strain: L/2 Strain is always

 Dimensionless

x  = x/y = tan 

y 90º-

90º
TENSION
True Strain
A ENGINEERING STRAIN is just NORMALIZED EXTENSION
F Engineering Strain = e = change in length/original length =

eng =

𝑙o
WHAT if we NORMALIZE BY the CURRENT LENGTH?
True Strain = t = change in length/instantaneous length =

𝑙 =
true

How? Conservation of volume

F Aolo  Al
• True strain is preferred for computational purposes
• True strain is equivalent to engineering strain at low strains
27
 Example of Engineering vs. True Strain
• Consider an metal bar with an original length of 10 cm. The bar is
stretched to a final length of 20 cm in the following 3 steps:
 10 cm to 12 cm

 12 cm to 15 cm

 15 cm to 20 cm

What is the engineering strain? What is the true strain?

(compare summation and integration)

12  10 12
e1  10  0.2 1  ln10 
0.18
15  12 15
e2  12  0.25  2  ln12 
20 Engineering 0.22 20 True
e3   0.33 strain  3  ln  0.29 strain
15
15 15
e1  e2  e3  0.78
1   2   3  0.69
20  10 20
eoverall  10  1.00  overall  ln10  0.69
 True Stress & Strain
Engineering: Deformation is a constant volume process.
True: Area changes as sample stretched.

30
 Stress-Strain Testing

• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile

machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 7.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.

gauge
length

Figure : A unidirectional force is applied

to a specimen in the tensile test
31
 Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

(b)

Figure (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing
original and final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.

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 Tensile Test
http://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM

Ultimate Tensile Strength Test - UTS Test - 70/30 Brass

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZpQgMsFYcOQ

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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure : Tensile stress-strain curves for

different materials. Note that these
are qualitative

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Engineering
 Stress-Strain Behavior
Elastic Deformation:
Reversible: When the
stress is removed, the
material returns to
the dimension it had
before the loading

Plastic Deformation:
Irreversible: when the
stress is removed the
material does not
return to its previous
dimension.

25
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

42
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

 plastic
 elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

 plastic 
27
 Elastic Deformation: Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)

 So far we have assumed that elastic deformation

is time independent (i.e. applied stress produces
instantaneous elastic strain)

 However, in reality elastic deformation takes time

(finite rate of atomic/molecular deformation
processes)- continues after initial loading, and
after load release. This time dependent elastic
behavior is known as anelasticity.

 The effect is normally small for metals but can be

significant for polymers (“visco-elastic behavior”).

28
 Stress-Strain Curve
Figure: A typical
stress- strain
curve obtained
from a tension
test, showing
various features.

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Figure : The stress-strain curve for an
aluminum alloy

30
 Mechanical Properties obtained from
Tensile Test

Important for Structural Design

1. Modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus)

2. Yield strength
3. Ultimate tensile strength
4. Ductility
5. Toughness
 Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastic Deformation

 In tensile tests, if the

deformation is
elastic, the stress-
strain relationship is
called Hooke’s law:

E is Young’s modulus or
modulus of elasticity,
has the same units as
, N/m2 or Pa.
Higher E = higher ‘stiffness’

47
 Elastic Modulus
 If the specimen is deformed elastically in
tension, we have measured the Young’s
modulus, E
Tensile

  E F F

 If the specimen is sheared, we have measured the shear

modulus, G
 A
  F
s
s
F
As
s

α
E=2G(1+)
  tan   h h
F
 What is this term?

G Force applied parallel to sample section
33
 Poisson’s Ratio
Since deformation is a constant volume
process  lateral
 
z
F

z
A material that is
y deformed axially,
will contract
x laterally.
unloaded
F
metals:  ~ 0.33 loaded
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40
Measure of the lateral contraction of a material during deformation relative to the axial expansion.
Poisson’s ratio is another elastic constant. 35
 Elastic Deformation: Atomic Scale
Picture
High Modulus
 Chapter 2: the
force-separation
curves for
interacting atoms low Modulus

42
 YOUNG’S MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000
800
Diamond E ceramics
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only

E(GPa) 200
Molybdenum Si n i t r i d e
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
> E metals
Platinum Si crystal

100
80
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
<100> Aramid fibers only

AFRE(|| fibers)*
>> E polymers
Aluminum Glass-soda Based on data in Table B2,
60 Glass fibers only

40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 6e.
Concrete Composite data based on
20 GFRE* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
10 9 Pa Graphite
CFRE*
GFRE(
of aligned
10 fibers) carbon (CFRE),
8 *
6 aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester
4 PET
CFRE( fibers)* glass (GFRE)
AFRE( fibers)*
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE

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Engineering
 Stress-Strain Behavior: Nonlinear
Elastic Behavior

 In some materials
(many polymers,
concrete…), elastic
deformation is not
linear, but it is
still reversible.

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Engineering
 Stress-Strain Behavior: Plastic Deformation

 Plastic Deformation
 Stress and strain are
not proportional
 The deformation is not
reversible
 Deformation occurs by
breaking and re-
arrangement of atomic
bonds (in crystalline
materials by motion of
dislocations)

45
 YIELD STRENGTH, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
wh e n  p

= 0.002
tensile stress, 

engineering strain, 

 p = 0.002
46
Tensile Properties: Yielding

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 0.2% Offset Yield Stress
• On a stress-strain curve, the onset of plastic deformation is
difficult to measure accurately.
• As a result, we define the yield stress as the stress at a strain
offset of 0.002 (i.e., the 0.2% offset strain).

σy
σ (N/mm2, lbs/in2, etc.)

Proportional
Limit ??? 0.2% offset yield strength

Line parallel to the

initial path of the σ-ε
E E curve
0
0 0.002
ε (mm/mm, in/in,
etc.) 63
 ELASTIC PLASTIC
Common
ASSUMING
Features on
DEFORMATI Stress-
ON Strain
Elastic
BEYOND limit Curves
THE YP BUT Stress (Force/Area)
below the Flow stress,  f
UTS Elastic
Modulus
E YIELD STRESS If stress is above the
elastic limit then
Δσ BOTH ELASTIC and
Δε PLASTIC deformation
will occur.
Strain

0.2% STRAIN, p=0.002

Plastic Elastic strain

deformation recovered
upon unload

Total strain
(Elastic strain + Plastic deformation)

9
 Tensile Strength (TS)
Also called UTS (i.e., ultimate tensile strength)
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Necking
TS
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal Neck – acts

as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
 DUCTILITY, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture

Ao
Lo Af

Lf

• Defined by percent
elongation
or
• Defined by percent
reduction in area
 Toughness
• Energy required to break a unit volume of material
the ability to absorb energy up to fracture
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile
large toughness (metals)
stress, 

very small toughness

(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

78
 A B C

A. Very ductile: soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at room T, polymers, glasses at high T
B. Moderately ductile fracture: typical for metals
C. Brittle fracture: ceramics, cold metals,
 Resilience, Ur

 Ability of a material to store energy

 Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur  0y
d

If we assume a linear stress-
strain curve this simplifies to
1
𝑈𝑟= 𝜎 𝑦 𝜀𝑦
2

79
 Hardness Testing
 Hardness is the resistance of the surface of a material to
penetration by a static force (e.g., a small dent or a
scratch)

 Relates to wear resistance because harder materials

abrade softer ones

 There are dozens of techniques to measure hardness,

but all involve applying a static force to a hard object
and determining the amount of penetration in the
sample
 HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

59
 HARDNESS
Hardness can be measured by different types of indenter
tips/loads.

Table 6.5 Hardness testing techniques

93 Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Figure 7.30
Comparison of several Early hardness tests
hardness scales. [from were based on
Callister & Rethwisch,
scratching materials
4th Ed.]
with minerals

94 Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Hardness

Both tensile strength and hardness may be regarded as degree

of resistance to plastic deformation.
Hardness is proportional to the tensile strength – but note that
the proportionality constant is different for
different materials.

62
 Brinell Hardness Test
http://www.youtube.com/watc

h?v=RJXJpeH78iU

Vickers Hardness Test

http://www.youtube.com/watc

h?v=7Z90OZ7C2jI

Rockwell Hardness Testers

Video
http://www.youtube.com/watc

h?v=439POmkcG-E 101
IMPACT FRACTURE TESTING

Impact Testing Techniques

Two standardized tests,4 the Charpy and Izod, were designed and are still
used to measure the impact energy, sometimes also termed notch
toughness. The Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique is most commonly used in
the United States.
Impact Testing Techniques

The load is applied

as an impact blow from a
weighted pendulum hammer
that is released from a cocked
position at a fixed height h.
The specimen is positioned at
the base as shown. Upon
release, a knife edge mounted
on the pendulum strikes and
fractures the specimen
at the notch, which acts as a
point of stress concentration
for this high-velocity impact
blow

The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height h’which is lower than h. The
energy absorption, computed from the difference between
h and h’ is a measure of the impact energy
 Impact Testing Techniques

One of the primary functions

of Charpy and Izod tests is to
determine whether or
not a material experiences a
ductile-to-brittle transition
with decreasing
temperature and, if so, the
range of temperatures over
which it occurs. The ductile-
to-brittle transition is related
to the temperature
dependence of the
measured impact energy
absorption.
Influence of carbon content on the Charpy V-notch
energy-versus temperature behavior for steel
 Fatigue
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components).

Under these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur at a stress level

considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load.

The term “fatigue” is used because this type of failure normally occurs after
a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling. Fatigue is important
inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to
comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics
(except for glasses) are also susceptible to this type of failure.
 Fatigue

CYCLIC STRESSES

The applied stress may be axial

(tension-compression), flexural
(bending), or torsional (twisting)
in nature. In general, three
different fluctuating stress–time
modes are possible. One is
represented schematically by a
regular and sinusoidal time
dependence.
 Fatigue

THE S–N CURVE

As with other mechanical characteristics, the fatigue properties of

materials can be determined from laboratory simulation tests.5 A test
apparatus should be designed to duplicate as nearly as possible the
service stress conditions (stress level, time frequency, stress pattern, etc.

Schematic diagram of fatigue-testing apparatus for making rotating bending tests.

the compression and tensile stresses are imposed on the specimen as it is

simultaneously bent and rotated. Tests are also frequently conducted using an
alternating uniaxial tension-compression stress cycle.
A series of tests are commenced by subjecting a specimen to the stress cyclingat a
relatively large maximum stress amplitude ( ), usually on the order of two thirds of
the static tensile strength; the number of cycles to failure is counted. This procedure is
repeated on other specimens at progressively decreasing maximum stress amplitudes.
Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the number N of cycles to failure for
each of the specimens.

For some ferrous (iron base) and

titanium alloys, the S–N curve
(Figure 8.19a) becomes horizontal
at higher N values; or there is a
limiting stress level, called the
fatigue limit (also sometimes the
endurance limit), below which
fatigue failure will not occur. This
fatigue limit represents the largest
value of fluctuating stress that will
not cause failure for essentially an
infinite number of cycles. For many
steels, fatigue limits range
between 35% and 60% of the
tensile strength
Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum,
copper, magnesium) do not have a fatigue
limit, in that the S–N curve continues its
downward trend at increasingly greater N
values (Figure 8.19b).Thus, fatigue will
ultimately occur regardless of the
magnitude of the stress. For these
materials, the fatigue response is
specified as fatigue strength, which is
defined as the stress level at which
failure will occur for some specified
number of cycles (e.g., 107cycles). The
determination of fatigue strength is also
demonstrated in Figure 8.19b

Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue behavior is fatigue

life It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified stress level, as taken
from the S–N plot
 Fatigue: Crack initiation+ propagation

Three stages:

1. crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near stress

raisers)
2. incremental crack propagation
3. rapid crack propagation after crack reaches critical size
 Fatigue: Crack initiation+ propagation
 Crack initiation: Quality of surface and sites of stress concentration
(microcracks, scratches, indents, interior corners, dislocation slip steps, etc.).

 Crack propagation
 I: Slow propagation along crystal planes with
high resolved shear stress. Involves a few
grains.
Flat fracture surface
 II: Fast propagation perpendicular to applied
stress.
Crack grows by repetitive blunting and
sharpening process at crack tip. Rough
fracture surface.

 Crack eventually reaches critical dimension and

propagates very rapidly
 Factors that affect fatigue life
 Magnitude of stress
 Quality of the surface
Solutions:
 Polish surface
 Introduce compressive stresses (compensate for applied tensile
stresses) into surface layer.
Shot Peening -- fire small shot into surface
High-tech - ion implantation, laser peening.
 Case Hardening: Steel - create C- or N- rich outer layer by atomic
diffusion from surface
Harder outer layer introduces compressive
stresses
 Optimize geometry
Avoid internal corners,
notches etc.
 SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To
minimize deformation, select a material with a large
elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches  y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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