MINERALS

BY

Mrs Okorie P.
Department of Medical Biochemistry
University of Nigeria, Enugu campus.
 OUTLINE
• Classification
• Sources
• Biochemical roles
• Deficiency
• Toxicity
 MINERALS : DEFINITION
• Minerals are inorganic elements occurring in nature.
• They are inorganic because they do not originate in animal or plant life but rather
from the earth’s crust.
• Although minerals make up only a small portion of body tissues, they are
essential for growth and normal functioning of the body.
• The body can make most of the things it needs from energy foods and the amino
acids in proteins but it cannot make vitamins and minerals.
• Minerals serve a variety of functions such as co-factor in enzyme catalysed
reactions, regulation of acid-base balance, nerve conduction, muscle irritability
and as structural elements in the body.
 CLASSES OF MINERALS
• Nutritionally, minerals are generally subdivided into two groups, major minerals
(macrominerals) and trace minerals (microminerals).
• These two groups of minerals are equally important, but trace minerals are
needed in relatively smaller amounts than major minerals but they are
nevertheless essential for good health.
• MAJOR MINERALS
• Macrominerals are required in amounts greater than 100 mg per day and include
the following; Calcuim, Sodium, Chloride, Potassium, Phosphorus, Magnesium,
Sulphur.
• TRACE MINERALS (MICROMINERALS)
• Microminerals are those nutrients required in amounts less than 100 mg per
day and include the following; Iron ,zinc, selenium, iodine, fluoride, copper,
manganese, molybdenum, chromium
• CALCIUM
• The most abundant in the body.
• Total human body Ca2+ is about 1-1.5kg, 99% is seen in bone and 1% in Extracellular
Fluid (ECF).
• Most calcium found in the body is present as Calcium phosphate (CaPO 4 ) crystals in
bone and teeth (cement that contribute to the physical strength of the teeth).
• It is also found in unbound ionic form as Ca 2+ which is involved in muscle contraction,
blood coagulation, enzyme action, nerve impulse transmission and ion-transport.
• Absorption of calcium is increased by vitamin D, Parathyroid Hormone(PTH), acidic
environment and amino acids (lysine and arginine).
• Phytate, Oxalates, Malabsorption syndromes, and phosphate decreases Ca ++
absorption.
• An adequate calcium intake is vital for health, particularly in times of growth (in
childhood, adolescence, pregnancy) to establish peak bone mass and also during
lactation (breastfeeding).
• Sources: Milk, Egg, Fish, green leafy vegetables, bones, cereals
ROLES
• Bone formation
• Teeth formation; formation of dentin and enamel
• Essential for clotting of blood as it is required for prothrombin activation
• Regulates the permeability of the capillary walls and ion transport across cell
membrane.
• Contraction of the heart and skeletal muscles.
• Acts as an activator (cofactor) for enzymes e.g pancreatic lipase.
• DEFICIENCY OF CALCIUM
• Deficiency is similar to that from vitamin D. When the serum Ca2+level is below
8.8mg/dl, it is hypocalcemia and when it exceeds 11mg/dl it is hypercalcemia.
• In children, calcium deficiency causes rickets due to insufficient calcification by
calcium phosphate of the bones in growing children.
• The bones therefore remain soft and deformed by the body weight.
• In adults, it causes osteomalacia, a generalized demineralization of bones.
• It may also contribute to osteoporosis, a metabolic disorder resulting in
decalcification of bone with a high incidence of fracture, that is, a condition
where calcium is withdrawn from the bones and the bones become weak and
porous and then breaks.
• A reduced extracellular blood calcium increases the irritability of nerve tissue,
and very low levels may cause spontaneous discharges of nerve impulses leading
to tetany and convulsions.
• Calcium deficiency also affects the dentition of both children and adult.
• TOXICITY OF CALCIUM
• Toxicity symptoms occur with excess absorption due to hypervitaminosis D or
hypercalcaemia due to hyperparathyroidism, or idiopathic hypercalcaemia.
• Excess calcium depresses cardiac activity and leads to respiratory and cardiac
failure; it may cause the heart to stop in systole, although, normally, calcium ions
increase the strength and duration of cardiac muscle contraction.
• PHOSPHORUS (P)
• Total body phosphate is about 1kg, 80% of which is seen in bone and teeth while
10% in the muscles.
• Phosphate is a constituent of all cells and it is mainly an intracellular ion. The
whole blood phosphate is 40mg/dl. This is because of the high content of
phosphates found in RBCs and WBCs.
• Sources: phosphate food additives, green leafy vegetables and fruits, especially
banana
• Functions:
• Synthesis of high energy phosphate compounds, e.g ATP, CTP, GTP, creatine
phosphate, etc.
• DNA and RNA synthesis where phosphodiester linkages form the backbone of the
structure.
• Activation of enzymes by phosphorylation e.g glycogen phosphorylation.
• Phosphate buffer system in blood. (Na2 HPO4/NaH2PO4). This maintains PH of
blood at 7.4.
• Formation of bone and teeth.
• Involved in the synthesis of phospholipids (integral part of cell structure) and
phosphoproteins.
• Formation of nucleoside co-enzymes, such as NAD and NADP
• DEFICIENCY
• Low serum phosphate is termed hypophosphatemia and when the serum level is above
the upper limit of normal range (3-4mg/dl). It is called hyperphosphatemia
• There is an inverse relationship between phosphorus and calcium.
• When there is excess of serum Ca2+ there is excretion of phosphate by the kidney and
vice-versa. Ca:P ratio in adults is 1:1 and 2:1 in infants.
• Phosphorus deficiency may cause bone diseases such as rickets in children
and osteomalacia in adults.
• An improper balance of phosphorus and calcium may cause osteoporosis.
• It can also result to muscle weakness, bone pain ,increased susceptibiity to infection,
numbness
TOXICITY: Phosphorus has very low toxicity.
 Hyperphosphatemia may also affect individuals with inappropriately low parathyroid
hormone (PTH) levels (hypoparathyroidism) as they lack PTH stimulation of renal
phosphate excretion and fail to stimulate synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (the
active form of vitamin D).
• Increase in serum phosphorus is found in chronic nephritis and
hypoparathyroidism.
• Toxicity disease or symptoms include low serum Ca2+ : P ratio.
• MAGNESIUM
• Widely distributed in living tissues. It is mainly seen in intracellular fluid. Total
body magnesium is about 25g, 60% is complexed with Ca2+ in bone.
• Normal serum level Mg++ is 1.8-2.2mg/dl.
• Functions;
• Assists in the utilization of calcium and phosphorus and functions in enzyme
reactions to produce energy.
• Magnesium protects the lining of arteries and helps form bones.
• It is also a constituent of bones, teeth, enzyme cofactor, (kinases, etc)
• By acting with vitamin B6, magnesium can help prevent or dissolve calcium
oxylate kidney stones, the most common kind of stones.
• FUNCTIONS CONTD
• Neuromuscular transmission: magnesium lowers neuromuscular irritability.
• Mg++ increases insulin-dependent uptake of glucose, thus, improving glucose tolerance.
• Sources: Cereals, Beans, leafy Vegetables and Fish. Requirement is about 400mg/day for men and
300mg/day for women. Increase amount is required during lactation.
• DEFICIENCY
• Hypomagnesemia: when serum Mg++ level is below 1.7mg/dl.
• Common causes include vomiting, diarrhea, liver cirrhosis and drugs e.g diuretics and Alcoholism.
Symptoms are tremor and cardiac arrhythmias.
• Gastrointestinal disorders that impair absorption such as Crohn's disease can limit the body's ability to
absorb magnesium.
• These disorders can deplete the body's stores of magnesium and in extreme cases may result in
magnesium deficiency.
• Chronic or excessive vomiting and diarrhea may also result in magnesium depletion.
• TOXICITY
• Hypermagnesemia: is rare and usually due to excessive intake either orally (antacids), rectally (enema)
or parenterally.
• Magnesium intoxication results in neuromuscular system depression, lethargy, hypotension and
SODIUM (Na+)
• Sodium is the principal cation in extracellular fluids.
• FUNCTIONS:
• It regulates plasma volume and acid-base balance.
• It is involved in the maintenance of osmotic pressure of the body fluids.
• Preserves normal irritability of muscles and cell permeability.
• Activates nerve and muscle function and involved in Na+/K+-ATPase.
• Maintenance of membrane potentials.
• Transmission of nerve impulses.
• The changes in osmotic pressure are largely dependent on sodium concentration.
• Commonly used vegetable foodstuffs do not contain sufficient quantities of sodium to meet the
animal’s dietary need.
• This inadequacy is compensated for by including sodium chloride, common salt, in their diet .
• Sodium is readily absorbed as the sodium ion and circulates throughout the body.
• Excretion occurs mainly through the kidney as sodium chloride or phosphate.
• There are appreciable losses in perspiration, and the quantities lost by this route vary rather
• SOURCES
• Sources include table salt, salt added to prepared foods and most natural foods
contain sodium.
• DEFICIENCY
• Low level of sodium in the serum is hyponatraemia and this occurs in acute Addison’s
disease, vomiting, diarrhea, nephrosis ,severe burns and intestinal obstruction .
• Signs and symptoms include dehydration, hypotension, drowsiness, lethargy,
confusion, abdominal cramps, oliguria, tremors and coma.
• TOXICITY
• Increased level of sodium in the serum is called hypernatraemia and this occurs in
Cushion’s disease, administration of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
administration of sex hormones, diabetes insipidus and after active sweating .
• High sodium intakes, along with obesity and high alcohol intake, are considered to be
among the risk factors for high blood pressure (hypertension), which is a risk factor for
cardiovascular disease and stroke.
• A low salt diet may be used in the treatment of hypertension.
POTASSIUM (K+)
• Potassium is the major intracellular cation and maintains intracellular osmotic pressure.
• Plasma potassium level is 3.5-5.5mmol/L. excretion is mainly Via urine.
• About 90% of excess potassium is excreted through the kidneys and the remaining 10% Via GIT.
• Sources: Banana, orange, apple, pineapple, almond, dates, beans, yam and potato.
• Functions: Depolarization and contraction of heart requires k+.
• The Intracellular concentration gradient is maintained by Na+-k+ ATPase pump.
• Important for a healthy nervous system .
• Regulation of osmotic pressure and cell membrane function.
• Increased dietary intakes of potassium have been associated with a decrease in blood pressure, as it
promotes loss of sodium in the urine.
• It is suggested that an increase in potassium intakes may offset the impact of some of the sodium in
the diet, therefore helping to protect cardiovascular health.

DEFICIENCY
• Hypokalemia: when the plasma level is below 3mmol/L and is usually associated with sodium
deficiency and both are associated with dehydration stemming from excessive losses of body fluid.
• Signs and symptoms include muscle weakness, fatique, muscle cramps, hypotension, decreased
• TOXICITY OF POTASSIUM
• Hyperkalemia: Hyperkalaemia is increased level in serum potassium (plasma K+ level
above 5.5mmol/L) and this occurs in Addison’s disease, advanced chronic renal failure
and shock .
• Toxicity disease or symptoms include dilatation of the heart, cardiac arrest, small bowel
ulcers.
• CHLORINE; Chloride is the principal anion in extracellular fluid.
• It is involved in the regulation of extracellular osmotic pressure and makes up over
60% of the anions in this fluid compartment and is thus important in acid base balance.
• It is the chief anion of the gastric juice and is accompanied by the hydrogen ions in
nearly equal amounts.
• The chloride of the gastric secretions is derived from blood chloride and is normally
reabsorbed during the latter stages of digestion in the lower intestine.
• FUNCTIONS
• Chlorine is involved in fluid and electrolyte balance, gastric fluid and chloride shift in
HCO3- transport in erythrocytes.
• Sources; Table salt and drinking water.
• DEFICIENCY OF CHLORINE
• Deficiency disease or symptoms occur in infants fed salt-free formula.
• It is also secondary to vomiting, diuretic therapy, renal disease.
• Excessive depletion of chloride ions through losses in the gastric secretions or by
deficiencies in the diet may lead to alkalosis due to an excess of bicarbonate,
since the inadequate level of chloride is partially compensated for or replaced by
bicarbonate.
TRACE MINERALS
IRON
• The role of iron in the body is almost exclusively confined to the processes of
cellular respiration.
• Iron is a component of haemoglobin (Hb), myoglobin (Mb)and cytochrome as
well as the enzymes catalase and peroxidase.
• The remainder of the iron in the body is almost entirely protein-bound; these
forms include the storage (ferritin or hemosiderin) and transport (transferrin)
forms of the mineral.
 SOURCES. Dietary sources of iron include organ meats, poultry and fish and
oysters, and also egg yolks, dried beans, dried figs and dates, dark green leafy
vegetables
• FUNCTIONS: Iron plays a number of important roles in the body. These include;
• As a component of Hb and Mb,it transports oxygen and CO2.
• As a component of cytochromes as non-heme iron-proteins, it is involve in oxidative
phosphorylation.
• Iron is required for proper myelination of spinal cord and white matter of cerebellar folds in
brain and is a cofactor for a number of enzymes involved in neurotransmitter synthesis .
• Iron is involved in synthesis and packaging of neurotransmitters, their uptake and
degradation into other iron-containing proteins which may directly or indirectly alter brain
function.
• DEFICIENCY
• A lack of dietary iron depletes iron stores in the body and this can eventually lead to iron
deficiency anaemia.
• In particular, women of child bearing age and teenage girls need to ensure they consume
adequate dietary iron because their requirements are higher than those of men of the
same age.
• Also, loss of blood due to injury or large menstrual losses increases iron requirements in the
short term.
 IRON TOXICITY (IRON OVERLOAD)
• Iron overload indicates accumulation of iron in the body from any cause.
• The most important causes are hereditary haemochromatosis (HHC), a genetic
disorder and transfusional iron overload which can result from blood transfusion.
• Ingested iron can cause injury to the gastrointestinal mucosa, resulting in nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
• At the cellular level, iron impairs cellular metabolism in the heart, liver, and
central nervous system.
• Free iron enters cells and concentrates in the mitochondria.
• This disrupts oxidative phosphorylation, catalyzes lipid peroxidation, forms free
radicals, and ultimately leads to cell death.
IODINE (I2)
• Dietary iodine is absorbed efficiently and transported to the thyroid gland. It is stored in the thyroid
gland and used in the synthesis of Thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine (T 3) and thyroxine (T4)).
• FUNCTIONS
• Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T 3) and thyroxine (T4),
and is therefore essential for normal thyroid function.
• To meet the body's demand for thyroid hormones, the thyroid gland traps iodine from the blood
and incorporates it into the large glycoprotein- thyroglobulin.
• The hydrolysis of thyroglobulin by lysosomal enzymes gives rise to thyroid hormones that are
stored and released into the circulation when needed.
• In target tissues, such as the liver and the brain, T 4 (the most abundant circulating thyroid
hormone) can be converted to T3 by selenium-containing enzymes known as iodothyronine
deiodinases (DIOs).
• T3 is the physiologically active thyroid hormone that can bind to thyroid receptors in the nuclei of
cells and regulate gene expression.
• In this manner, thyroid hormones regulate a number of physiologic processes, including growth,
development, metabolism and reproductive function.
• Sources: mainly sea foods e.g Salt ,water, Fish, crabs, etc
• DEFICIENCY OF IODINE
• Insufficient iodine intake impairs the production of thyroid hormones, leading to a condition
called hypothyroidism.
• Iodine deficiency-induced hypothyroidism has adverse effects in all stages of development
but is most damaging to the developing brain.
• Maternal iodine deficiency during pregnancy can result in maternal and fetal
hypothyroidism, as well as miscarriage, preterm birth, and neurological impairments in
offspring.
• Iodine deficiency results in a range of adverse health disorders with varying degrees of
severity, from thyroid gland enlargement (goiter) to severe physical and mental retardation
known as cretinism.
• More than 120 countries worldwide have introduced programs of salt fortification with
iodine in order to correct iodine deficiency in populations
TOXICITY
• Symptoms of acute poisoning of absorbed iodine caused by its corrosive effects on the
gastrointestinal tract, include vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea.
• Other symptoms may be a metallic taste in the mouth, pain in the teeth, gums and mouth
• ZINC ZN2+
• Sources : grains, beans, nuts, cheese, meat and shellfish.
• FUNCTIONS OF ZINC
• It plays a role in cellular transport and protection from oxidative damage, as well as
immune function, cell division and growth.
• Spermatogenesis is also zinc-dependent.
• Zinc plays a role in maintaining exocrine and endocrine pancreatic function.
• Its effects are most obviously seen in the maintenance of skin integrity and in wound
healing.
• It plays a vital role in protein synthesis and digestion, and is necessary for optimum insulin
action as zinc is an integral constituent of insulin.
DEFICIENCY
• Increased losses of zinc occur in patients with major burns and in those with renal damage.
• Zinc loss in renal disease is due to its association with plasma albumin, and it accompanies
urinary protein loss.
• Substantial amounts of zinc may also be lost during dialysis.
• DEFICIENCY CONTD
• Zinc deficiency might be a result of malabsorption associated with
gastrointestinal GI surgery, short bowel syndrome, Crohn’s disease, and ulcerative
colitis, and may occur in liver and kidney disease.
• Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, malignancy and chronic diarrhea also lead to
deficiency. Pregnant women and alcoholics are prone to deficiency.
• In children, zinc deficiency is characterized by growth retardation, skin lesions,
and impairment of immune function and sexual development.
• Zinc deficiency also leads to impairment in taste and smell and to delayed wound
healing.
• Zinc is probably the least toxic of the trace metals but increased oral intake
interferes with copper absorption, and may lead to copper deficiency and
anemia.
• Zinc supplementation was shown to reduce the severity and duration of diarrhea in children in
developing countries, and prevent further episodes of diarrhea. Therefore, zinc supplements are
now recommended by WHO/UNICEF along with the oral rehydration treatment.
COPPER (Cu):
• Copper is a constituent of certain enzymes or it is essential in their activity; these include
cytochrome, cytochrome oxidase, catalase, tyrosinase, monoamine oxidase, superoxide
dismutase
• SOURCES : Organ meat, oysters,legumes,nuts,shell fish
• FUNCTIONS:
• Copper is associated with cytochrome oxidase and superoxide dismutase (the latter also
requires zinc).
• One of the main roles of copper, especially in superoxide dismutase but also in association with
the plasma copper-carrying protein ceruloplasmin, is the scavenging of superoxide and other
reactive oxygen species.
• Copper is also required for the crosslinking of collagen, being an essential component of lysyl
oxidase.
• It is necessary for the growth and formation of bone, formation of myelin sheaths in the nervous
systems, helps in the incorporation of iron in haemoglobin, assists in the absorption of iron from
• COPPER DEFICIENCY
• Demineralization of bones, anemia and fragility of the large arteries.
• Anaemia is due to a defect in Iron metabolism, where the Cu2+ containing enzyme
ferroxidase is required for the conversion of iron from ferrous state where it is
absorbed to the ferric state in which it can bind to transferrin.
• Clinical disorders associated with Cu deficiencies include anaemia, bone
disorders, neonatal ataxia, depigmentation and abnormal growth of hair, fur or
wool, impaired growth and reproductive performance, heart failure and
gastrointestinal disturbances.
• TOXICITY
• Excess dietary Cu causes an accumulation of Cu in the liver with a decrease in
blood haemoglobin concentration and packed cell volume.
• Liver function is adversely affected in copper poisoning.
• Jaundice results from erythrocyte haemolysis and this may lead to death unless
treatment is started.
SELENIUM
• Selenium is a component of selenoproteins, which contain the amino acid
selenocysteine.
• The antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase is a selenoprotein, as are the
iodothyronine deiodinases, enzymes that produces triiodothyronine (T3) and
reverse T3 (rT3). Thioredoxin reductases that participate in cell proliferation
apoptosis and DNA synthesis also contain selenocysteine.
• Selenium affects functions of the immune system, including stimulation of
differentiation of T cells and proliferation of activated T lymphocytes, as well as
increase in natural killer cell activity.
• It also plays a role in spermatogenesis.
• Selenium is present in diet as selenomethionine and seleno­cysteine.
• Its dietary sources also include organ meats, fish (tuna) and shellfish, and cereals.
Its content in plant-derived food depends on the content of the soil.
• DEFICIENCY
• Deficiency of selenium can also develop during Total Parenteral Nutrition(TPN).
• There is a rare selenium-responsive cardiomyopathy (Keshan disease), which is
endemic in China in areas of very low selenium intake.
• Selenium deficiency may result in chronic muscle pain, abnormal nail beds, and
cardiomyopathy, hair loss, falling nails, diarrhoea, weight loss and garlicky odor in
breath.
• TOXICITY
• Excess of selenium, on the other hand, leads to liver cirrhosis, splenomegaly,
gastrointestinal bleeding and depression.
• Increased intake of selenium might be required during lactation.
• Several studies indicate beneficial effect of selenium on the risk of lung, prostate,
bladder and other cancers.
MANGANESE (Mn): Functions
• Manganese is a component of the following enzymes, pyruvate and acetyl-CoA
carboxylase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, arginase, hexokinase.
• The fact that Mn is concentrated in the mitochondria has led to the suggestion
that, in vivo, manganese is involved in the partial regulation of oxidative
phosphorylation.
• Absorption of Mn is inhibited by the presence of excessive amounts of calcium and
phosphorus in the diet
• Manganese is a co-factor in phosphohydrolases and phosphotransferases involved
in the synthesis of proteoglycans in cartilage.
• Mn is a part of enzymes involved in urea formation, pyruvate metabolism and the
galactotransferase of connective tissue biosynthesis.
• Sources: It is gotten from nuts, whole grains, leafy vegetables .
• Deficiency: Impaired growth and skeletal deformities.
• There is abnormal formation of organic bone matrix due to impairment of
• FLUORINE (F)
• Most of fluorine is found in bone where they combine with calcium or hydroxy
apatite to form fluoroapatite.
• This is important for hardening the tooth enamel and contribute to the stability of
the bone mineral matrix.
• TOXICITY
• Fluoride level more than 2ppm will cause chronic intestinal upset, anorexia, and
weight loss.
• Level more than 5ppm causes mottling of enamel, stratification and
discolouration of teeth.
• A level more than 20ppm is toxic, culminating in alternate areas of osteoporosis
and osteosclerosis, with brittle bones. This is called fluorosis.
ANTIOXIDANT MINERALS
• Some vitamins and minerals — including vitamins C and E and the minerals copper, zinc, and
selenium — serve as antioxidants, in addition to other vital roles.
• An antioxidant can be defined as: “any substance that, when present in low concentrations
compared to that of an oxidisable substrate, significantly delays or inhibits the oxidation of that
substrate”
• The physiological role of antioxidants, as this definition suggests, is to prevent damage to cellular
components arising as a consequence of chemical reactions involving free radicals.
• Free radicals are atoms or molecules containing one or more unpaired electrons, making them very
“reactive”.
• Superoxide radicals (O2•−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radicals (•OH), and singlet oxygen
(1O2) are commonly defined reactive oxygen species (ROS); they are generated as metabolic by-
products by biological systems
• Biologically ,relevant free radicals are activated atoms or groups of atoms (usually containing
oxygen or nitrogen) with an odd (unpaired) number of electrons.
• In a non-radical compound, all orbits are occupied by two electrons. When a chemical reaction
breaks the bonds that hold paired electrons together, free radicals are produced.
• Therefore in a ‘free radical’ compound, there is a single unpaired electron in the outer orbit.
• A single excited electron is searching to become part of a paired set and will steal an electron
from another, nearby atom to accomplish this pairing.
• During this theft, the original free radical becomes stable while the neighboring atom, by
losing an electron, becomes a free radical itself.
• This new free radical will then seek out another atom to steal from, creating a chain
reaction.
• The extreme reactivity driven by a desire to acquire another electron underlies their ability
to interact with and ultimately damage tissue.
• Biologically relevant molecules such as DNA, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates are damaged.
• Under normal conditions the deleterious effects of ROS are counteracted by the body’s
antioxidant defenses, which are contributed to through dietary intake of key nutrients (e.g.
vitamins and trace minerals).
• Antioxidants serve to stabilize these highly reactive free radicals, thereby maintaining the
structural and functional integrity of cells.
• Therefore, antioxidants are very important to immune defense and health of humans and
animals.
• Oxidative stress occurs when the production of reactive oxygen metabolites exceeds the
• Overall, free radicals have been implicated in the pathogenesis of at least 50
diseases which include cancer, atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases,
cataracts,aging
• There is a delicate balance between the amount of free radicals generated in the
body and the antioxidants needed to provide protection against them.
• An excess of free radicals, or lack of antioxidant protection, can shift this balance
resulting in oxidative stress.
• The dietary and tissue balance of all these nutrients (vitamins and trace
elements) are important in protecting tissues against free-radical damage as well
as participating in immune function.
THANK YOU