EE215 Electronic Devices & Circuits

Lecture 2
Semiconductor Diodes
 n -TYPE AND p -TYPE MATERIALS

The characteristics of a semiconductor material can be altered significantly

by the addition of specific impurity atoms to the relatively pure semiconductor
material.

A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an
extrinsic material.

There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable importance to semiconductor

device
fabrication: n -type and p -type materials.

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n –Type Material

An n -type material is created by introducing impurity elements that have five valence
electrons ( pentavalent ), such as antimony , arsenic , and phosphorus. Each is a
member of a subset group of elements in the Periodic Table of Elements referred to as
Group V because each has five valence electrons.

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n –Type Material
There is an additional fifth electron due to the
impurity atom, which
is unassociated with any particular covalent
bond. This remaining electron, loosely bound to
its parent (antimony) atom, is relatively free to
move within the newly formed n -type material.

Diffused impurities with five valence electrons

are called donor atoms.

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p –Type Material

The p -type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with
impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The elements most frequently used for
this purpose are boron , gallium , and indium . Each is a member of a subset group of
elements in the Periodic Table of Elements referred to as Group III because each has
three valence electrons.

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p –Type Material
There is now an insufficient number of
electrons to complete the covalent bonds
of the newly formed lattice. The resulting
vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a
small circle or a plus sign, indicating the
absence of a negative charge. Since the
resulting
vacancy will readily accept a free electron:

The diffused impurities with three valence

electrons are called acceptor atoms.

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 Majority and Minority Carriers

• In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the
minority carrier.
• In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Now that both n - and p -type materials are available, we can construct our first
solid-state
electronic device: The semiconductor diode.

It is created by simply joining an n -type and a p -type material together, nothing

more, just the joining of one material with a majority carrier of electrons to one with
a majority carrier of holes.

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 Diode Operating Conditions

1. No Applied Bias ( V = 0 V)
2. Reverse - Bias Condition ( )
3. Forward -Bias Condition ( )

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 SEMICONDUCTOR
DIODE
No Applied Bias ( V = 0 V)
At the instant the two materials are
“joined” the electrons and the holes in the
region of the junction will combine,
resulting in a lack of free carriers in the
region near the junction, as shown in
Figure.
This region of uncovered positive and
negative ions is called the depletion region
due to the “depletion” of free carriers in the
region.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR
DIODE
No Applied Bias ( V = 0 V)
Under no-bias conditions, any minority
carriers (holes) in the n -type material
that find themselves within the depletion
region will pass quickly into the p -type
material.
The closer the minority carrier is to the
junction, the greater is the attraction
for the layer of negative ions and the less
is the opposition offered by the positive
ions in the depletion region of the n -type
material. Any minority carriers of the n -
type material that find themselves in the
depletion region will pass directly into
the p -type material. 11
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
No Applied Bias ( V = 0 V)
The number of majority carriers is so large in
the n -type material that there
will invariably be a small number of majority
carriers with sufficient kinetic energy to pass
through the depletion region into the p -type
material. Again, the same type of discussion
can be applied to the majority carriers (holes)
of the p -type material.
The relative magnitudes of the flow
vectors are such that the net flow in either
direction is zero.
In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor diode, the net flow of
charge in one direction is zero.
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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Reverse-Bias Condition ( )
An external potential is applied across the p – n junction such that the positive
terminal is connected to the n -type material and the negative terminal is connected
to the p -type material as shown in Figure,
the number of uncovered positive
ions in the depletion
region of the n -type material will
increase due to the large number of
free electrons drawn to the positive
potential of the applied voltage and
the number of
uncovered negative ions will
increase in the p –type material.
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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Reverse-Bias Condition ( )

The effect will be widening of the depletion region.

This widening of the depletion region will establish a barrier for the majority
carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse
saturation current and is represented by .
The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes and
typically in nA, except for high-power devices. The term saturation comes from the
fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly and does not change significantly
with increases in the reverse-bias potential.

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EE215 Electronic Devices & Circuits
Lecture 2
Diode Applications
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Forward-Bias Condition ( )

A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive potential to

the p -type material and the negative potential to the n -type material as shown in
Figure.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Forward-Bias Condition ( )

The application of a forward-bias potential will “pressure” electrons in the n -type

material and holes in the p -type material to recombine with the ions near the
boundary and reduce the width of the depletion region.
Thus resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p -type material to the n -
type material (and of holes from the n –type material to the p -type material) has not
changed in magnitude, but the reduction in the width of the depletion region has
resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Forward-Bias Condition ( )

An electron of the n -type material now “sees” a

reduced barrier at the junction due to
the reduced depletion region and a strong
attraction for the positive potential applied to the
p -type material. As the applied bias increases in
magnitude, the depletion region will continue
to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can
pass through the junction, resulting
in an exponential rise in current as shown in the
forward-bias region of the characteristics
of Figure.
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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Forward-Bias Condition ( )

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Breakdown Region

There is a point where the application of too

negative a voltage with the reverse polarity will
result in a sharp change in the characteristics, as
shown in Figure. The current increases at a very
rapid rate in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. The reverse-bias
potential that results in this dramatic change in
characteristics is called the breakdown potential
and is given the label .

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Breakdown Region

The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the
breakdown region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the
PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted the PRV rating).

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 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Breakdown Region

The breakdown voltage of GaAs

diodes is about 10% higher
those for silicon diodes but after
200% higher than levels for Ge
diodes.

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 IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL DIODE

An analogy often used to describe the behavior

of a semiconductor diode is a mechanical
switch. In Figure a the diode is acting like a
closed switch permitting a generous flow of
charge in the direction indicated. In Figure b
the level of current is so small in most cases
that it can be approximated as 0 A and
represented by an open switch.
The semiconductor diode is different from a
mechanical switch in the sense that when
the switch is closed it will only permit current
to flow in one direction.

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IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL DIODE

Reading Assignment:
1. ZENER DIODES
2. LIGHT-EMITTING
DIODES
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 REVERSE RECOVERY TIME

Theoretical Background:

In the forward-bias state it was shown earlier that there are a large number of
electrons from the n -type material progressing through the p -type material and a
large number of holes in the n -type material — a requirement for conduction.
The electrons in the p -type material and holes progressing through the n -type
material establish a large number of minority carriers in each material.

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 REVERSE RECOVERY TIME

If the applied voltage should be reversed to establish

a reverse-bias situation, we would ideally like to see
the diode change instantaneously from the conduction
state to the non-conduction state.
However, because of the large number of minority
carriers in each material, the diode current will
simply reverse as shown in Figure and stay at this
measurable level for the period of time (storage
time) required for the minority carriers to return to
their majority-carrier state in the opposite material.

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 REVERSE RECOVERY TIME

Eventually, when this storage

phase has passed, the current will be reduced in level
to that associated with the non-conduction
state. This second period of time is denoted by
(transition interval).
The reverse recovery time is the sum of these two
intervals:

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EE215 Electronic Devices & Circuits
Lecture 3
Diode Applications
 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

The circuit shown in figure is the simplest of diode

configurations.

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 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

In this figure the diode characteristics are

placed on the same set of axes as a straight
line defined by the parameters of the
network. The straight line is called a load
line because the intersection on the vertical
axis is defined by the applied load R . The
analysis to follow is therefore called load-
line analysis.
The load line plots all possible combinations
of diode current () and voltage () for a given
circuit. The maximum equals E/R, and the
maximum equals E.

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 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

In this figure the diode characteristics are

placed on the same set of axes as a straight
line defined by the parameters of the
network. The straight line is called a load
line because the intersection on the vertical
axis is defined by the applied load R . The
analysis to follow is therefore called load-
line analysis.
The load line plots all possible combinations
of diode current () and voltage () for a given
circuit. The maximum equals E/R, and the
maximum equals E.

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 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

The point of intersection between the two is

the point of operation for this circuit.
By simply drawing a line down to the
horizontal axis, we can determine the diode
voltage , whereas a horizontal line from the
point of intersection to the vertical axis will
provide the level of .
The point of operation is usually called the
quiescent point (abbreviated “ Q -
point”)

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

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 SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the applied
sources is such that its direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol,
and ≥ 0.7 V for silicon, ≥ 0.3 V for germanium, and ≥ 1.2 V for gallium
arsenide. 42
SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

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SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

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SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

An open circuit can have

any voltage across its
terminals, but the current is
always 0 A.
A short circuit has a 0-V
drop across its terminals,
but the current is limited
only by the
surrounding network.

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SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

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SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

Reading Assignment:
Example 2.8 & 2.9

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EE215 Electronic Devices & Circuits
Lecture 4
Diode Applications
PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

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PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

Reading Assignment:
Topic 2.5: AND/OR
Gates
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SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; RECTIFICATION

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SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
The simplest of networks to examine with a time-varying signal appears in Fig.
2.44 .

The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc level is

called halfwave rectification .

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SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

The diode conducts only

when it is forward biased,
therefore only half of the AC
cycle passes through the
diode to the output.

Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of Fig. 2.44 , the average value (the algebraic
sum of the areas above and below the axis) is zero. The circuit of Fig. 2.44 , called a half-
wave rectifier , will generate a waveform that will have an average value of particular use in
the ac-to-dc conversion process. When employed in the rectification process, a diode is
typically referred to as a rectifier.
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SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
The effect of using a silicon diode

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SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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Peak Inverse Voltage (PRV)
It is important that the reverse breakdown voltage rating of the diode be high enough to
withstand the peak, reverse-biasing AC voltage. It is the voltage rating that must not be
exceeded in the reverse-bias region or the diode will enter the Zener avalanche region.

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full-wave rectification . For performing such a function appears in Fig. 2.53 with its four
diodes in a bridge configuration.

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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EE215 Electronic Devices & Circuits
Lecture 5
Diode Applications
CLIPPERS

Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion

of an input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
applied waveform.
A clipper is a device designed to prevent the output of a circuit from exceeding
a predetermined voltage level without distorting the remaining part of the
applied waveform.

The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode

clipper, one resistor and a diode. Depending on the orientation of the
diode, the positive or negative region of the applied signal is “clipped”
off.

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CLIPPERS
There are two general categories of clippers:
series and parallel.

Series:
The diode in a series clipper “clips” any voltage that does
not forward bias it:

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CLIPPERS
Series:
The addition of a dc supply to the network as shown in Fig. 2.69 can have a
pronounced effect on the analysis of the series clipper configuration. The response
is not as obvious because the dc supply can aid or work against the source
voltage.

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CLIPPERS
Series:
In Fig. 2.69 , for instance, any positive voltage of the supply will try to turn the diode on
by establishing a conventional current through the diode that matches the arrow in the
diode symbol. However, the added dc supply V will oppose that applied voltage and try to
keep the diode in the “off” state. The result is that any supply voltage greater than V volts
will turn the diode on and conduction can be established through the load resistor. Keep
in mind that we are dealing with an ideal diode for the moment, so the turn-on voltage is
simply 0 V. In general, therefore, for the network of Fig. 2.69 we can conclude that the
diode will be on for any voltage vi that is greater than V volts and off for any lesser
voltage.
For the “off” condition, the output would be 0 V due to the lack of current, and for the
“on” condition it would simply be vo = vi - V as determined by Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

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CLIPPERS
Series:
Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that will result in a change of
state for the diode from the “off” to the “on” state.
This step will help to define a region of the applied voltage when the diode is on and
when it is off. On the characteristics of an ideal diode this will occur when V D 0 V and I D 0 mA.

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CLIPPERS
Series:

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CLIPPERS
Series:

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CLIPPERS
Series:

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CLIPPERS
Series:

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CLIPPERS
Series:

Reading Assignment:
Example 2.19
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SERIES CLIPPERS SUMMARY

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CLIPPERS
Parallel:

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CLIPPERS
Parallel:

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CLIPPERS
Parallel:

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CLIPPERS
Parallel:

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CLIPPERS
Parallel:

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PARALLEL CLIPPERS SUMMARY

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PARALLEL CLIPPERS SUMMARY

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CLAMPERS
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and
a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different dc level
without changing the appearance of the applied signal.

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CLAMPERS

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CLAMPERS

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CLAMPERS

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CLAMPERS

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CLAMPERS

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CLAMPERS

Reading Assignment:
Example 2.23
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CLAMPERS SUMMARY

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