PSTE 4223 Methodes sismiques

Part I: Seismic Refraction

Anne Obermann

2 x 3h
Overview
Introduction – historical outline

Chapter 1: Fundamental concepts

Chapter 2: Data acquisition and material
Chapter 3: Data interpretation
A: Geophysical Interpretation
B : Geological Interpretation
Overview
Introduction – historical outline

Chapter 1: Fundamental concepts

Chapter 2: Data acquisition and material
Chapter 3: Data interpretation
 Towards refraction seismology
 1885 all that was known about the Earth structure was a vague idea that the density inside
had to be much greater than at the surface
within 50 years an incredible amount more had been learned using seismology

Breakthrough: Seismometer (late 1800’)

Instrumental challenge: how to measure ground

motion given that the
seismometer sits on the ground?

Record very small ground motions on the order of

10-3 cm for distant earthquakes
Towards refraction seismology
 Seismometers were developed to record vertical and horizontal motion.
 Precise timing, nowadays done using GPS (Global Positioning System) clocks - so that
records can be compared between stations. Data are now recorded digitally and made
available on the web.
 Towards refraction seismology
 In 1889, an earthquake in Japan was recorded
successfully on several seismometers in Germany.
 Milne discovered that observations showed that the
time separations between P and S wave arrivals
increased with distance from the earthquake.

• Thus, the S-P time could be used

to measure the distance to the
earthquake.
Towards refraction seismology
 Next step: Infer the velocity structure of the Earth as a function of depth from the
seismograms that were recorded from many different earthquakes (Inverse Problem).
 The simplest approach to the inverse problem treats the earth as flat layers of uniform
velocity material. The basic geometry is a layer of thickness z, with velocity v1,
overlying a halfspace with a higher velocity v2.

PROBLEM: DATA QUANTITY

DEPENDENT ON LARGE
EARTHQUAKES – DIFFERENT
SOURCES NEEDED!
Towards refraction seismology
 Towards refraction seismology

 Set out a line or array of geophones

 Input a pulse of energy into the ground
 Record the arrival times to interpret the velocity structure
Towards refraction seismology
Seismic methods and scales
 Controlled source seismology
- allows higher resolution studies (m to 100s km)
- can carry out experiments away from tectonic regions

 Global seismology (earthquakes)

- provides information on global earth structure and
large scale velocity anomalies (100s to 1000s km)
- difficult to image smaller scale structure, particularly
away from earthquake source regions
Seismic methods and scales

 Seismic refraction

Refraction
- Used to study large scale crustal layering:
thickness and velocity

 Seismic reflection
- “Imaging” of subsurface reflectors
- Difficult to determine accurate velocities and

Reflection
depths
Applications
Overview
Introduction – historical outline

Chapter 1: Fundamental concepts

- Physical notions
- Two-layered model
- Special cases
Chapter 2: Data acquisition and material
Chapter 3: Data interpretation
Different waves
P (compression) + S (shear) Surface waves
waves
Huygens Principle

Each point along a material acts like a point

source of waves.

Waves have circular (spherical) wave fronts,

these interact constructively (destructively)
and produce the wave fronts that we plot as
rays.
 RE
PR
Snell’s Law ES W
EN RO
TA NG
TI
ON
> !! W
HY
?
Seismic rays obey Snell’s law -

The angle of incidence equals the angle of

reflection.

The angle of transmission is related to the

angle of incidence through the velocity
ratio.

Note: the transmitted energy is refracted

 Snell’s law: S wave conversion
A conversion from P to S
or vice versa can also
occur.
Still, the angles are
determined by the velocity
ratios.
α1, β1

p is the ray parameter

α2, β2 and is constant along
each ray.
 Snell’s law: Critical Incidence

when α2 > α1, e2 > i

=>we can increase iP until e2 = 90°

α1 when e2=90 °, i=ic the critical angle

α2 The critically refracted energy travels

along the velocity interface at α2
continually refracting energy back into
the upper medium at an angle ic.

Head wave
Wave Propagation according to Huygens Principle

WRONG REPRESENTATION !!!

->
Wave Propagation according to Huygens Principle
Wave Propagation according to Huygens Principle
Wave Propagation according to Huygens Principle
Seismic Method comparison
 Seismic Method comparison
Refraction Reflection
Typical targets Near-horizontal density Horizontal to dipping
contrasts at depths less than density contrasts, and
~100 feet laterally restricted targets
such as cavities or tunnels at
depths greater than ~50 feet
Required Site Conditions Accessible dimensions None
greater than ~5x the depth
of interest; unpaved greatly
preferred
Vertical Resolution 10 to 20 percent of depth 5 to 10 percent of depth
Lateral Resolution ~1/2 the geophone spacing ~1/2 the geophone spacing
Effective Practical Survey 1/5 to 1/4 the maximum >50 feet
Depth shot-geophone separation
Relative Costs N 3N-5N
Two-layered model
Two-layered model
Energy from the source can reach the receiver via different paths

Direct wave

Reflected wave

Head wave or Refracted

wave
Time-Distance Diagram (Travel Time curves)
Think about:
 What would a fast
velocity look like on this
plot?
 Why is the direct ray a
straight line?
 Why must the direct ray
plot start at the origin
(0,0)?
 Why is the refracted ray a
straight line?
 Why does the refracted
ray not start at the origin?
 Why does the reflected
ray start at origin?
 Why is the reflected ray
asymptotic with the direct
ray?
 Two-layered model
Slope=1/v1
1. Direct wave

Time (t)
Energy travelling through the top layer,
travel-time

The travel-time curve for the direct wave is simply

a linear function of the seismic velocity and the Distance (x)
shot-point to receiver distance

Shot Point Receiver

Direct Ray
x

v1
 Two-layered model
2h1
1. Direct wave
2. Reflected wave v1

-Energy reflecting off the velocity interface.

Time (t)
-As the angles of incidence and reflection are equal,
the wave reflects halfway between source and
receiver.
-The reflected ray arrival time is never a first arrival.

Distance (x)
Shot Point Receiver

Layer 1 v1

Layer 2 v2
 2h1
2. Reflected wave v1

Time (t)
The travel time curve can be found by noting that x/2 and h0 form two
sides of a right triangle, so

Distance (x)
This curve is a hyperbola, it can be written as

“INTERCEPT TIME”
GIVES LAYER
For x = 0 the reflected wave goes straight up and down, with a travel time THICKNESS
of TR(0) = 2h1/v1. At distances much greater than the layer thickness (x
>> h), the travel time for the reflected wave asymptotically approaches that
of the direct wave.

Shot Point x Receiver

h1

Layer 1 v1
Layer 2 v2
 x 1 1
t  2h1 2
 2
v2 v1 v2
Two-layered model
1. Direct wave
2. Reflected wave critical
distance
3. Head wave or Refracted wave cross over

Time (t)
distance

-Energy refracting across the interface.

-Only arrives after critical distance. 1 1
- Is first arrival only after cross over 2h1 2
 2
distance v1 v2

Distance (x)
“CRITICAL DISTANCE”
 NO REFRACTED RAYS 

ic ic ic ic
v1
Layer 1
Layer 2
v2
 3. Head wave or Refracted wave

The travel time can be computed by assuming that the wave travels down to the interface
such that it impinges at critical angle, then travels just below the interface with the velocity
of the lower medium, and finally leaves the interface at the critical angle and travels
upwards to the surface.

Reminder

Show that:

.
X
x0 D
A
h1
ic ic v1
B C v2
3. Head wave or Refracted wave

The axis intercept time is found by projecting the travel time curve back to x = 0. The intercept
time allows a depth estimation.

Critical distance xc: distance beyond which critical incidence first occurs.

At the critical distance the direct wave arrives before the head wave. At some point, however,
the travel time curves cross, and beyond this point the head wave is the first arrival. The
crossover distance, xd, where this occurs, is found by setting TD(x) = TH(x) , which yields:

The crossover distance is of interest to determine the length of the refraction line.
Travel-time for refracted waves

x 1 1
t   2h1 2
 2
v2 v1 v2

critical
distance
cross over
Time (t)

distance

1 1
2h1 2
 2
v1 v2

Distance (x)
 Reminder:

Note on Refraction angle

Interesting to notice that the higher the velocity contrast, the smaller the refraction angle.

V1 = 1000 m/s λ = 11 °
V2 = 5000 m/s

V1 = 1000 m/s λ = 30 °
V2 = 2000 m/s

=> We can only analyse cases with an increasing velocity function with depth
 Summary h1

 v1 determined from the slope of the

direct arrival (straight line passing
through the origin)
 v2 determined from the slope of the head
wave (straight line first arrival beyond
the critical distance)
 Layer thickness h1 determined from the
intercept time of the head wave (already
knowing v1 and v2)
 Multiple-layers

For multiple layered models

we can apply the same
process to
determine layer thickness
and velocity sequentially
from the top layer to the
bottom.
 Multiple-layers
 The layer thicknesses are not
as easy to find
 Recall…

x 2h1 cos ic
t 
v1 v1

2h1 cos ic1 v1tint1

tint1  h1 
v1 2 cos ic1
Solve for h1…
Now, plug in h1 and solve the remaining layers one at a time …

2h1 cos ic1 2h2 cos ic2

tint 2  
v1 v2 BEWARE!!! h1, h2, are layer thicknesses, not
depth to interfaces. So, depth to bottom of layer
3 /top of layer 4 = h + h + h
Multiple-layers
General formulation
Overview
Introduction

Chapter 1: Fundamental concepts

Chapter 2: Material and data acquisition
Chapter 3: Data interpretation
 Material
 Geophones
 Recording device (Computer,
Seismograph)
 Source (hammer, explosives)
 Battery
 Cables
 (Geode)
 Material: Geophones

Geophones need a good connection to the

ground to decrease the S/N ratio (can be
buried)
Material: Cable, Geode
Material: Energy Source
 Sledge hammer (Easy to use, cheap)
 Buffalo gun (More energy)
 Explosives (Much more energy, licence required)
 Drop weight (Need a flat area)
 Vibrator (Uncommun use for refraction)
 Air gun (For lake / marine prospection)

Goal: Produce a good energy

with high frequencies, Possible
investigation depth 10-50 m

You can add (stack) few shots to improve signal/noise

ratio
 Data acquisition

Number of receivers and spacing between them

=> will define length of the profile and resolution
Number of shots to stack (signal to noise ratio)
Position of shots
Geophone Spacing / Resolution
 Often near surface layers have very low velocities
 E.g. soil, subsoil, weathered top layers of rock
 These layers are likely of little interest, but due to low velocities, time spent in them may be
significant

To correctly interpret data these layers must be detected

Find compromise between:

Geophone array length needs to be 4-5 times longer than investigation depth
Geophone distance cannot be too large, as thin layer won’t be detected
Geophone Spacing / Resolution
• This problem is an example of…?
Overview
Introduction

Chapter 1: Fundamental concepts

Chapter 2: Data acquisition and material
Chapter 3: Data processing and interpretation
Record example
Dynamite shot recorded
using a 120-channel
recording spread
Record example

Example of seismic refraction data acquisition where students are using a 'weight-
drop' - a 37 kg ball dropped on hard ground from a height of 3 meter - to image the
ground to a depth of 1 km
 Record example

Time
Time

Distances
First Break Picking
 This is the most important operation, good picking on good data !!!!
 A commun problem is the lack of energy, for far offset geophones
First Break Picking –on good data

noise
First Break Picking –on poor data

noise

?
Travel-time curve
How does the inverse shot look like in an planar layered medium?

distance
Reciprocity of travel-times
Assigning different layers
Control of travel-times
Travel time inversion to find best matching
underground model
Complete analysis process
Exercice
Some Problems
Dipping interfaces

Undulating interfaces

There are two cases where a seismic interface will not be revealed by a refraction survey.

The low velocity layer

The hidden layer

 Dipping Interfaces
• What if the critically refracted interface is not horizontal?

 A dipping interface produces a pattern

that looks just like a horizontal interface!
 Velocities are called “apparent
velocities”
 What do we do?

In this case, velocity of lower layer is underestimated

underestimated
 Dipping Interfaces
• To determine if interfaces are dipping…

 Shoot lines forward and reversed

 If dip is small (< 5o) you can take
average slope
 The intercepts will be different at both
ends
 Implies different thickness

Beware: the calculated thicknesses will be

perpendicular to the interface, not vertical
 Dipping Interfaces
 If you shoot down-dip
 Slopes on t-x diagram are too
steep
 Underestimates velocity
 May underestimate layer thickness
 Converse is true if you shoot up-dip
 In both cases the calculated direct ray
velocity is the same.

• The intercepts tint will also be

different at both ends of
survey
 Problem 1: Low velocity layer
If a layer has a lower velocity than the one above…
 There can be no critical refraction - The refracted
rays are bent towards the normal
 There will be no refracted segment on the t-x
diagram for the second layer
 The t-x diagram to the right will be interpreted as -
Two layers
- Depth to layer 3 and thickness of layer1 will
be exaggerated
Causes:
 Sand below clay
 Sedimentary rock below igneous rock
 (sometimes) sandstone below limestone

How Can you Know?

Problem 2: Hidden layer
 Recall that the refracted ray eventually overtakes the direct ray (cross over distance).
 The second refracted ray may overtake the direct ray first if:
 The second layer is thin
 The third layer has a much faster velocity
Undulating Interfaces
 Undulating interfaces produce non-linear t-x diagrams
 There are techniques that can deal with this
 delay times & plus minus method
 We will see them later…
Detecting Offsets
 Offsets are detected as discontinuities in the t-x diagram
 Offset because the interface is deeper and D’E’ receives no refracted rays.
 Question: To which type of underground
model correspond the following travel-time
curves?

t t

distance distance
Further information

http://www.geomatrix.co.uk/training-videos-seismic.php