Understanding Data

and Ways
to Systematically
Collect Data
RSCH2111
 INTRODUCTION
 Data are what researchers are searching for.
 They are subjected to analysis, statistical procedures, and
interpretation so that inferences, principles and generalizations are
drawn.
 Data also reveal unsatisfactory conditions that need to be improved.
 The application of newly discovered facts and principles to remedy
unsatisfactory conditions becomes the basis of human progress and
the improvement of the quality of human life (Calderon & Gonzales,
2008).
 Qualitative Research Designs
A RESEARCH DESIGN is basically a research plan similar to a
blue print which serves as a guide in conducting a study. Some
describe it as the overall strategy that a researcher chooses to
incorporate the different components his/her study. It is written in a
coherent and logical way to ensure that the research problem will
effectively be addressed.
 Qualitative Research Designs
Qualitative research designs consist of many components and can
be based on basic design. Flick (2007) characterizes a good
qualitative research design.

• Clear focus on the research questions

• Manageable in resources and time
• Clear in decisions about sampling and particular use of methods
 Qualitative Research Designs
• Well-linked to the theoretical background and based on the
research perspective of the study
• Reflective to the aims of generalization and the audiences of the
study
• Sensitive, flexible, and adaptive to conditions in the field
• Open to new insights from the start or during the progress of the
research
FIVE APPROACHES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN ACCORDING TO CRESWELL (2013)
1. NARRATIVE RESEARCH. As a method, it begins with the
experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals.
The procedures for implementing this research consist of focusing
on studying one or two individuals, gathering data through the
collection of their stories, reporting individual experiences, and
chronologically ordering the meaning of those experiences
 TYPES OF NARRATIVES
 Biographical study is when the researcher writes and records the
experiences of another person’s life.
 Autoethnography is written and recorded by the individuals who
are subject of the study (Ellis; Muncey, in Creswell, 2013). It
contains the personal story of the author as well as the larger
cultural meaning for the individual’s story
 TYPES OF NARRATIVES
 A life history portrays an individual’s entire life, while a personal
experience story is a narrative study of an individual’s personal
experience found in single or multiple episodes, private situations,
or communal folklore (Denzin, in Creswell, 2013).
 An oral history consists of gathering personal reflections of events
and their causes and effects from one individual to several
individuals (Plummer, in Creswell, 2013).
FIVE APPROACHES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN ACCORDING TO CRESWELL (2013)
2. Phenomenological Research. It describes a common meaning
for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a
phenomenon. The researcher then collects data from the persons
who have experienced the phenomenon (i.e. insomnia, anger,
undergoing organ transplant), and develops a composite description
of the essence of the experience for all the individuals.
FIVE APPROACHES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN ACCORDING TO CRESWELL (2013)
3. Grounded Theory Research. Its intention is to move beyond
description and to generate or discover a theory, a “unified
theoretical explanation” (Corbin & Strauss, in Creswell, 2013) for a
process or an action. The researcher generates a general explanation
(a theory) of a process, and action, or an interaction shaped by the
views of a large number of participants.
FIVE APPROACHES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN ACCORDING TO CRESWELL (2013)
4. Ethnographic Research. An ethnography focuses on an entire
culture-sharing group. Typically, it involves many people who
interact over time (such as teachers in an entire school or a
community social work group). “The researcher describes and
interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors,
beliefs and language of a culture sharing group (Harris, in Creswell,
2013).”
FIVE APPROACHES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN ACCORDING TO CRESWELL (2013)
5. Action Research. It seeks action to improve practice and study
the effects of the action that was taken (Streubert & Carpenter, in
Nieswiadomy, 2008). Solutions are sought to address problems in a
particular setting. In action research, the implementation of
solutions occurs as an actual part of the research process. There is
no delay in implementation of the solutions (Nieswiadomy, 2008).
 THE SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
Sample is a representative of the population, that is, the
characteristics of the sample are characteristics of the population.
Therefore, the data is obtained from the sample only, but are applied
to the entire population. The members of the sample are identified
as respondents, participants or subjects who will meet the criteria
for subject selection and will provide necessary data or information
(Casela & Cuevas, 2010).
 THE SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
Study population is the entire group of elements that you would
like to study. This is often a group of individuals (such as
firefighters in New York, OFW’s in Middle East, etc.), but it can
also be composed of a larger units such as families, institutions,
communities, countries, etc. The study population is entirely
defined by the researcher, based on the study objectives (Guest,
et.al., 2013)
 THE SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
Sampling frame is a list of all elements in a study population. It is
always defined by your study population. For example, your study
population is vendors in market X, then your frame would be a list
of all vendors in that market. It is often not easy to obtain in field
research (Guest, et.al., 2013).
 THE SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
Sampling unit is the thing (person, place, event, etc.) that is
selected for inclusion in the study. If you are sampling high school
students, your sampling unit would be one (Guest, et.al., 2013).
Data Collection Procedure in Description
Qualitative Research

1. OBSERVATION The researcher records the events that

he/she has seen. He/She focuses on
respondents to capture a particular
aspect of their behavior. He/She may
or may not directly participate in the
activities of the research
investigation. He/She may or may not
have any background (Casela &
Cuevas, 2010).
Data Collection Procedure in Description
Qualitative Research

2. INTERVIEW The researcher asks a set of well-

constructed questions and may even
make follow up questions to gather
the necessary data. He/She establishes
rapport in a face-to-face interview to
yield highest response rate. He/She
resorts to telephone interview when
less time and less expenses are being
considered (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).
Data Collection Procedure in Description
Qualitative Research

3. DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS The researcher uses existing or

available information such as health
records or reports and other
documents of organization or
institution (Casela & Cuevas, 2010).
Data Collection Procedure in Description
Qualitative Research

4. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION The researcher obtains in-depth

(FGD) information on concepts, perceptions,
and ideas of a group. He/She
facilitates the group members
discussing the topic among
themselves (Guest, et.al., 2013).
Data Collection Procedure in Description
Qualitative Research

5. Visual Data They refer to the recording, analysis and communication

of social life through photographs, films, and videos
(Harper, in Boeije, 2010). The choice of this method is
most useful when observing spaces, places, the
environment, and objects. The same applies when
photography or video is used to collect data, for example
everyday life of community members, like video-taping a
playground in a school for the deaf to learn about hearing-
impaired culture (Alexander, in Boeije, 2010).
QUESTIONS
&

ANSWERS
 DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Data analysis is another challenging part of any research. The
researcher should be systematic so he/she will not be daunted by
the bulk of data he/she gathered. Although some computer
software can also do the analysis of the research data, it is still
necessary for the researcher to interpret and describe the results.
 DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
These techniques are very useful to your research process so you
will be able to maximize the materials and data that you collected
which will lead you to produce a creative and meaningful work or
research
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
1. Iterative/hermeneutic approach
• involves seeking meaning and developing interpretive explanation through the
process of feedback
• involves a series of actions: defining the question, going out of the field,
examining the data collected, adjusting the question/sampling approach/design
aspect/data collection tools in light of emerging issues and current literature,
subjecting this data to a critically reflective process of data analysis to determine
“what is going on” in
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
order to build up a picture of data and going back to the field to find out more. These
processes are repeated until the accumulated findings indicate that nothing new is
likely to emerge and that the research question has been answered.
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
2. Subjective approach
• focused on the researcher, and what takes place within his/her own thoughts and
actions in specified context
• the researcher needs to maintain a detailed and critically reflective diary record
and be prepared to subject himself/herself to regular periods of debriefing with a
supervisor or colleague
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
• when the researcher’s experiences are the sole or partial target of the target,
he/she occupies a dual role – that of a researcher and researched.
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
3. Investigative semiotic approach
• involves the uncovering information relating to languages within cultural contexts
• the understanding of signs and symbols is central to this approach, in particular
their mythical strength, and the embedded power of particular discourse which
the researcher need to disentangle the reveal the original elements as well as to
identify arguments that have been marginalized.
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
4. Enumerative approach
• involves listing or classifying of items by percentages, frequencies, ranked order,
or whatever is useful to the research question
• involves the researcher in the production of “objective” accounts of the content of
the verbal, written or visual texts, the development of codes and categories often
prior to analysis, and the definition and measurement of units of analysis
 Four Broad Types of Qualitative Analytic
Approaches (Grbich, 2013)
• flow charts, logical reasoning processes, the seeking of links between antecedents
and outcomes through identification of ordered (ranked) word frequency, key
words in context, and incidence counting.
Stages of Interview/ Observational Data for
Analysis (Grbich, 2013)
Transcription of data. It involves getting the dialogue or narrative
of the devices on which the researcher has recorded it and into a
document so there is a clear researcher defined column for notes, as
seen below.
Stages of Interview/ Observational Data for
Analysis (Grbich, 2013)
Preliminary data analysis. It is an ongoing process that is
undertaken every time data is collected. It involves a simple process
of checking and tracking the data to see what is coming out of it,
identifying areas that require follow up and actively questioning
where the information collected is leading/ should lead the
researcher. It is a process of engagement with the text, not so much
to critique it or to summarize what is emerging from it, but more to
gain a deeper understanding of the values and meanings which lie
therein
Stages of Interview/ Observational Data for
Analysis (Grbich, 2013)
Face sheets. This is a cover sheet that is attached to the front of the
data transcription and identifies the study question, time and place
of interview/observation and summarizes the main outcomes for the
preliminary analysis.
Stages of Interview/ Observational Data for
Analysis (Grbich, 2013)
Regardless of whether the data collected comes from written
observations, transcriptions of interviews or the perusal of existing
documents, you should undertake this process in order to highlight
emerging issues, to allow relevant data to be identified and to
provide directions for seeking further data (Grbich, 2013).
 THANK
YOU
For Listening!!!