10/08/2022

Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• First, we must understand the difference between DECLINE & DROP.
►
DECLINE: is the normal change in the trend due to regular production.
►
DROP: is a sudden change in the trend due to an external effect that
impact the production such as plugging of the perforations.
►
So, when setting the decline line for a specific period, you must avoid
the drop areas in the curve to ensure a representative decline.

DROP
DECLINE

Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• DCA was introduced in 1954 by J.J. Arps based on empirical observation
of production decline curve then he developed three types of
mathematical decline models (Exponential, Hyperbolic & Harmonic)
that are used when production declining @ a CONSTANT PRESSURE.

Exponential
Production rate, q

Hyperbolic

Harmonic

Time, t

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Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• Exponential decline is the easiest
very common decline model. Exponential
– It shows the most decline,
hence provide the most Hyperbolic
confident conservative
reserve forecast. Harmonic
– It is a constant decline with time
& is INDEPENDENT on
the production rate.
• While both of Harmonic & Hyperbolic types are changing declines with
time which are DEPENDENT on the production rate.
– In Harmonic decline model, decline rate is not constant BUT change
with a constant decline rate.
– In Hyperbolic decline model, decline rate is neither constant nor
change with a constant decline rate BUT always changing
with time.

Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• This figure summarize the (Exponential & Hyperbolic) decline curves.
Production rate, bopd

Hyperbolic Decline

Exponential Decline

Time, years

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Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• Let’s defines the constants (Di & b).

Di : value of the decline rate, (time-1).

Log of production rate, Log(q)

Production rate, q
q Di = −2.303 Log(q)/t

Di = (−q/q)/t

q

t t
Time, t Time, t

Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

b : Arps’ decline curve exponent factor equal to slope of the natural
log of production rate vs. time that define shape of the decline
curve & type of the decline (Exponential, Harmonic or Hyperbolic).
►
b = (0)  for Exponential decline
►
b = (1)  for Harmonic decline
►
(0) < b < (1)  for Hyperbolic decline (“b” is not “0” or “1”)
Oil rate, stb/d

Exponential  b = 0
Harmonic  b = 1
Hyperbolic  (0) < b < (1)

Time, months

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Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• Then, equations to calculate the production rate (q) & the Estimated
Ultimate Recovery (EUR) or (Q) @ any given time (t) for the 3 decline
methods are summarized in this table below.

Exponential Hyperbolic Harmonic

b=0 (0) < b < (1) b=1

Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• Based on the production data, the three ways of decline will behave on
Cartesian & Semi-Log plots as follow:
• Exponential decline: is straight line on semi-log plot with (b) factor = (0)
• Hyperbolic decline: is curve on semi-log with (b) factor ranges (0 < b < 1)
• Harmonic decline: it is a special curve type of the hyperbolic on semi-
log decline with (b) factor = (1)
Cartesian plot Semi-Log plot

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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Before discussing the Monte Carlo Probabilistic & Stochastic method
we must know some about basics of statistics such as:
1. Range
2. Domain
3. Average Value
4. Mean Value
5. Median Value
6. Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)
7. Standard Deviation
8. Frequency & Histogram
9. Probability
10. Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
11. Mode or Modal Value
12. Class
13. Grouping

1- Range
• Range is the difference between:
– Upper & lower limits on a particular scale.
– Largest & Smallest values in a set of data.

• In this set of data {4, 6, 9, 3, 7} the

lowest value is (3) & the
highest is (9), so the range is (9) − (3) =
(6).

• The range can sometimes be misleading

when there are extremely high
or low values.
• In this data set {8, 11, 5, 9, 7, 6, 3616}
the lowest value is (5) & the
highest is (3616), so the range is (3616)
− (5) = (3611).
• The single value of (3616) in the data set
makes the range (3611) to be
large, while most values varies around
(10).
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2- Domain
• A function is the expression that relates an input to an output.
• The domain of a function is the set of all possible inputs for the function.

• For example:
– The domain of f(x) = (x²) is all real numbers
– The domain of f(x) = (1/x) is all real numbers except for x = 0

11

3- Average Value
• Average is a single approximate value which can be used to represent
the whole set of data. There are three types of averaging:
• Arithmetic Average:
𝑖=𝑛
– Mathematical sum of the data / number of this data. 1
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖
• Geometric Average: 𝑛
𝑖=1
– It is the square root (powered to the number of the
data) of the mathematical product of this data. 𝑛
𝑖=𝑛

–It can be found by multiplying all the numbers in 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 =

𝖦 𝑥𝑖
the given data set & take the nth root for the result. 𝑖=1

• Harmonic Average:
– It is the number of the data divided by the sum of
𝑛
the reciprocal of each number in the data set.
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1
– Thus, harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the σ 𝑖=𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
arithmetic mean of the reciprocals in the data set.

12

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3- Average Value
• The Harmonic average is always < the Geometric average, which is
always < the Arithmetic average.
• The Arithmetic average is usually used, occasionally the Geometric
average, & very rarely the Harmonic average.
• Using any of these averages depends mainly on the type of the data to be
averaged. For example, if the data contain (0), so both Harmonic &
Geometric averages give errors.
• Generally, Arithmetic average is used with static data as porosity ().
• While both Harmonic & Geometric averages are used with dynamic
data as permeability (k). P
h1

 Kh
h1
in
in q11 
∅1 K11
i i
h
h22
K  i1

i q22 
 ∅2 K22
h
avg
 in
hi
avg 
h33
i1 ∅3 K33
n
q33 

i1
L

13

4- Mean Value
• Mean value () is the Arithmetic average of different values of (x).
• It is equal to the sum of the numbers divided by how many numbers,
i.e., it is the sum/count.

𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 (𝛍) = 𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐬

Number of terms

• Example: Sam's team has scored the following numbers of goals in recent
14 games (2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 2, 3).
• The mean value of the goals for all games is:

𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 =
2+3+1+2+1+3+2+3+4+
5 + 4 + 2 + 2 +3 = 2.64
14

• Note that (2.64) is NOT included in the numbers

in the data set.

14

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5- Median Value
• It is NOT like the Mean (Arithmetic average) value, but it is the halfway
middle point in a sorted data set where (½) numbers in the data
set are greater than it & the other (½) numbers in the data set are less than
it.
• To find the median, place the numbers in value order, then find the
middle point where number of digits below & above it are equals.
• Example: consider this data set {3, 13, 7, 5, 21, 23, 39, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12,
56, 23, 29}.
• Then, place the numbers in order like this  {3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23,
23, 23, 23, 29, 39, 40, 56}.
• Since there are (15) numbers in this data set (ODD number of digits), so
the middle number is the (8th) number in the sorted data set (there are
7 numbers on both right & left sides).
• {3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 23, 23, 23, 29, 39, 40, 56}  so, the median
value of this set of numbers is (23).
• Note that the median numbers (23) is already included in the data set
not like the mean number (22).

15

5- Median Value
• BUT, for data set with an EVEN number of digits, there will NOT just one
middle number, but a PAIR of middle numbers.
• To find the median in this case, just define the two middle numbers in
the data set that (½) numbers in the data set are greater than them &
the other (½) numbers in the data set are lower than them.
• Then add them together & divide by (2) to find their Arithmetic average
that is equal to the median.
• Example: this is a data set {3, 13,7, 5, 21, 23, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12, 56, 23, 29}.
• Place numbers in order like this  {3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 23, 23, 23,
29, 40, 56}.
• There are (14) points in the data set, the middle two points are the (7th & 8th).
• The median value of this set of numbers is {(21 + 23) / 2} = 44 / 2 = 22
• Note that (22) was not in the numbers in the data set but that is ok because
half the numbers in the list are lower & half the numbers are higher than it.

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6- Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)

• Sum of Squared Estimate of errors (SSE) is the sum of the squared
differences between each data point & its group's mean value ().
• The variance (S2) or the Least Squared Error (R2) is a measure of
variability & the degree of spread in a data set, the more spread the
data, the larger the variance is in relation to the mean value ().

• Graphically, the variance (S2) or the

Least Squared Error (R2) is
an intermediate line go through the
data making the total sum of the
square of the errors as small
as possible.
• If all data points in a group are
identical, then the least
squares error would then equal
to (0).

17

6- Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)

• This is a graphical representation showing how the variance (S2) or the
Least Squared Error (R2) is determined.

18

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6- Variance or Least Squared Error (R2)

• Mathematically, it is calculated by taking the average of the squared
deviations from the mean value ().
• This is the formula to calculate the variance:

S2 : sample variance
𝟐 N: number of points in the data set
𝐒 = σ 𝐗𝐢 − 𝛍
𝟐
xi : each value in the data set
𝐍  : mean of the data set

19

7- Standard Deviation
• Standard deviation () is the square root
Population density

of the variance (S2) which is a

measure of the variation or
dispersion value of a set of - 
values in a data set away from
their mean value ().

• Majority of the data resides in the range
from ( − ) to ( + ). LOW ()
• LOW standard deviation indicates that
the values in the data set are close to
each others and hence to the mean
value of the data set (more
accurate).
• HIGH standard deviation indicates that
HIGH ()
the values in the data set are not close
to each others but spread out over
a wider range (less accurate).

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7- Standard Deviation
• This is the formula to calculate the Standard Deviation ():

: standard deviation
𝟐 N: number of points in the data set
𝛔= σ 𝐗𝐢 − 𝛍 xi: each value in the data set

𝐍  : mean of the data set

• To calculate the standard deviation () of any set of numbers:

1. Calculate the mean value () which is the average of the numbers.

2. Then for each number in the data set, subtract the mean value ()
& then square the result (xi − )2

3. Then calculate the mean of those squared differences {(xi − )2 / N}

4. Take the square root of that mean {(xi − )2 / N}½ & we are done.

21

7- Standard Deviation − Example

• Assume this set of data with 20 points  9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12,
5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9 & 4  (N = 20 points)
• The mean value () =
(9+2+5+4+12+7+8+11+9+3+7+4+12+5+4+10+9+6+9+4) / 20 = 140 / 20 = 7
• Then for each value in the data set, subtract the mean value () &
square the result, like this for the first two points in the data set.
For 1st point: (9 − 7)2 = (2)2 = 4
For 2nd point: (2 − 7)2 = (−5)2 = 25
• By doing this for all data points in the data set to calculate all values
from (x1 − )2 to (xN − )2, we will have these results for all data
points ni the data set (4, 25, 4, 9, 25, 0, 1, 16, 4, 16, 0, 9, 25, 4, 9, 9, 4, 1, 4, 9).
• Sum all values from (x1 − )2 to (xN − )2
= 4+25+4+9+25+0+1+16+4+16+0+9+25+4+9+9+4+1+4+9 = 178
• Standard deviation () = (178 / 20)0.5 = (2.98) which is relatively high
since the mean value (7) is away from the values in the data set
since they are not close to each others.

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7- Standard Deviation
• To understand the practical meaning behind the standard deviation (),
suppose you have 1000 height measurements data with mean height
() = 170 cm & standard deviation () = 5 cm.
• Majority of the data resides in the range from ( − ) to ( + ), i.e. from
(170 − 5 = 165) to (170 + 5 = 175).

• If the data was from a school, then the

standard deviation () = 5 cm is huge &
not accepted since the heights - 
of toddlers would be varied from age to
another (i.e., hight variation from 
KG students to secondary
students).
• But if this data set was from an army academy, so the standard deviation
() = 5 cm is small & acceptable since almost all heights
would be close to the selection cut-off criteria for the academy &
hence very less spread & less standard deviation would
be obtained.

23

8- Frequency & Histogram

• Frequency means how many time the value of (x) is repeated in the
data set. By another words, how often each values of (x) occurs in the
data set.
• Frequency Histogram is a graph that uses vertical bars without gaps
between the bars to show frequencies for all values of (x) in the data set
& how they are distributed.
• Example: following numbers are the goals scored in a recent 14 games
{2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 2, 3}.
• Then, put the numbers in order {1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5} &
summarize as below. Score Frequency Histogram
6
– (1) occurs (2 times) 1 2
5
– 2 5
Frequency

(2) occurs (5 times) 4

3
– (3) occurs (4 times) 3 4
2
4 2
– (4) occurs (2 times) 1
5 1
– (5) occurs (1 time) 0
1 2 3 4 5
Total 14 Score

24

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9- Probability
• Probability means the chance that something will happen. By another
words, How likely this event will occur.
• Mathematically, it is defined as a ratio between the frequency of (x) to
the total frequencies for all values of (x) in the data set.
• Since probability is a number, so its value ranges from 0 (impossible)
to 1 (certain)
• Sum of the probabilities must equal to (1).
• Apply this for the data set used in the Frequency & Histogram example.
Score Frequency Probability
– Probability of (1) to occur (2/14)
1 2 2 / 14 = 0.14
– Probability of (2) to occur (5/14)
2 5 5 / 14 = 0.36
– Probability of (3) to occur (4/14) 3 4 4 / 14 = 0.29
– Probability of (4) to occur (2/14) 4 2 2 / 14 = 0.14
5 1 1 / 14 = 0.07
– Probability of (5) to occur (1/14)
Total 14 Sum = 1

25

10- Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

• The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) is used to describe the
probability distribution of random variables.
• Mathematically, the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) is obtained
by summing up the probability & getting the cumulative probability for all
values of (x) in the data set.
• Apply this for the data set used in the probability example.

Score Frequency Probability Cum. Probability

1 2 2 / 14 = 0.14 0.14
2 5 5 / 14 = 0.36 0.50
3 4 4 / 14 = 0.29 0.79
4 2 2 / 14 = 0.14 0.93
5 1 1 / 14 = 0.07 1
Total 14 Sum = 1

26

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10- Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

• Then to plot the cumulative probabilities vs. the scores (or any other
class intervals as will discussed later) to construct the Cumulative
Distribution Function (CDF) curve.

Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) Curve

1

0
.
Cum. Probability

0
.
6

0
.
4
0 1 2 3 4 5
Score
0
.
2

27
0

10- Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)

• There is a difference between Probability Density Function (PDF) & the
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF).
• The CDF is the probability that random variable values less than or equal
to (𝑥) whereas the PDF is a probability that a random variables exactly
equal to (𝑥).
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 𝑥
Cumulative Distribution Function Probability Density Function
(CDF) (PDF)
28

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11- Mode or Modal Value

• Mode or modal value is the value with the most frequently occurring in
the data set.
• To find the mode value, it is best to put the numbers in order then
count how many of each number occurs.
• A number that appears most often is the mode.
• We may have more than one mode in the data set. Having two modes
is called "BIMODAL".
• Having more than two modes is called "MULTIMODAL".
• Example#1: this is a data set {6, 3, 9, 6, 6, 5, 9 & 3}.
• Place the numbers in order  {3, 3, 5, 6, 6, 6 , 9 & 9}.
• The Mode is (6), as it occurs most often.
• Example#2: this is a data set in order  {1, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 9, 12 & 15}.
►
Both numbers (3) & (6) appears two times in the data set so there are two
modes (3) & (6).

29

12- Class
• Class is a set or category of things having some property or attribute in
common & is differentiated from others by kind, type, or quality.
• By another words, it is an interval on a number scale that represents range of
each group of data, e.g., greater than (x) but less than or equal to (y).
• Class interval is defined as the size of the class into which a particular
data is divided which equal to the difference between the upper-class
limit & the lower-class limit.
• Example: assume you measure the length of leaves on a tree. Some are less
than (1) cm & the longest is (9) cm.
• You then put the lengths into groups using different class intervals as
summarized in this table.
A class interval of (3) cm has A class interval of (5) cm has
these groups these groups
0 cm to just below 3 cm, 0 cm to just below 5 cm,
3 cm to just below 6 cm, 5 cm to just below 10 cm,
6 cm to just below 9 cm,

30

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13- Grouping
• In some cases, such as when all values in the data set appear with the
same number of times, the mode is not useful.
• But we can group the values to see if one group has more numbers than the
others.
• Example: in this data set {4, 7, 11, 16, 20, 22, 25, 26, 33} each value occurs
once so let us try to group them with class of “9”:
– 0 − 9 : 2 values (4 & 7)
– 9 − 18 : 2 values (11 & 16)
– 18 − 27 : 4 values (20, 22, 25 & 26)
– 27 − 36 : 1 value (33)
• In groups with class of “9”, the group which includes data from 18 to 27 range
appear most often, so we could choose 25 (the middle of this group) as the
mode.
• You could use different classes & get a different groupings answer.

31

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Monte Carlo Probabilistic & Stochastic method is used because the
deterministic methods do not count for the heterogeneity & variation of
the reservoir properties.
• This method is based on the stochastic model for the probability & the
degree of confidence of data occurrence (frequency) in the reservoir.
• A high degree of confidence exists IF the quantity is much more likely
to be achieved than not.
• In this method, we construct the probability of occurrence plot
(Histogram) with ranges of estimates & their associated probabilities
for each values & parameter of the geological, engineering & economic
data such as (h, A, , Sw, o … etc.) to determine the probability of
distribution for each property inside the reservoir.

Uniform Triangular Gaussian

Uniform

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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Then the model statistically combine these parameters to calculate a
range of the reserve values & their probabilities by using reiteration
calculation based on the products of the distributions of these
variables.
• The final result divides the reserves into 3 reserve scenarios based on the
probability of occurrence, P10 (Best case scenario), P50 (Most likely
case scenario) & P90 (Worst case scenario) ). Where subscripts 90, 50 &
10 are the parentage of probability of occurrence.

33

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Then, the multiply of the probability of distribution plot (Histogram) for
all parameters (A, h, , Sw, o … etc.) will result-in the probabilistic
distribution curve for the reserve.
A, acres
Normal
probability
distribution
×
h, ft
Triangular
probability
distribution

× %
Normal
probability
distribution

Exponential Sw
probability
distribution A = 300 – 750
acre
× o Scenario
Uniform N = 0.4 – 2.8
probability h = 15 – 30 ft
Model MMstb
distribution
R = 100 – 300
stb/acre.ft
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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Then the final result is 3 reserve scenarios, P10 (Best case scenario with
the low chance of occurrence), P50 (Most likely case scenario with
reasonable chance of occurrence) & P90 (Worst case scenario with high
chance of occurrence).

P50

P90

P10

P90 P50 P10

Cumulative probability graph

35

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

P90 (Worst case scenario):
• This scenario is the pessimistic
case (Worst case low estimate
scenario with high
probability of occurrence)
which represent the minimum
reserve that can be estimated based
on the given properties
distribution.
• (90) is the percentage of
probability of
occurrence so this is the
number with high
confidence of occurrence.
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

P50 (Most likely case scenario):
• This scenario is the most likely
case (most likely best
estimate scenario with
reasonable confidence
probability of
occurrence) which represent the
normal reserve estimation based
on the given properties
distributions.
• (50)
probability percentage
is theof occurrence of is
so this
the number with reasonable
confidence of occurrence. Cumulative probability graph
• (P50) is equivalent to the (2P) reserve category
= (P1) proven reserve + (P2) un-proven probable reserve

37

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

P10 (Best case scenario):
• This scenario is the optimistic
case (high estimate
scenario with low probability
of occurrence)
which represent the maximum
reserve that can be
estimated based on the
given properties
distributions.
• (10) is the percentage of
probability of occurrence
so this is the number of less
confidence of occurrence.
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• In order to understand how we construct the
histogram for any data set let’s consider the
porosities data for 40 drilled wells as summarized
in this table.

• First, arrange the data in descending mode.

39

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Then set the required class (an interval
on a number scale) to calculate the
frequencies & construct the Histogram.
• For this example, the class = 0.022

Sum = 40

• Then connect between the

to have the histogram
peaks the graph should
typicallybeas one of the common
probability distribution graphs
where
shown in the next slid.

40

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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• These are the common probability distribution graphs.

41

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Then calculate the probability which is the ratio between the frequency
of (x) to the total frequencies & the cum. probability which is the ratio
between the cum. frequency of (x) to the total frequencies.

Probability Cum.
Probability

= 4 / 40 = 0.1 = 4 / 40 = 0.1
= 2 / 40 = 0.05 = 6 / 40 = 0.15
= 5 / 40 = 0.125 = 11 / 40 = 0.275
= 8 / 40 = 0.2 = 19 / 40 = 0.475
= 8 / 40 = 0.2 = 27 / 40 = 0.675
= 6 / 40 = 0.15 = 33 / 40 = 0.825
= 6 / 40 = 0.15 = 39 / 40 = 0.975
= 1 / 40 = 0.025 = 40 / 40 = 1.00

Sum = 40 =1

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Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Finally plot the cum. probability vs. the class intervals to have the Cum.
Distribution Function (CDF) that define the 3 scenarios for this parameter,
P10 (Best case scenario), P50 (Most likely case scenario) & P90 (Worst
case scenario).
1
0.9
P90
0.8
Cum. Probability

0.7
0.6
0.5
P50
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 P10
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
.
0 Porosities
0

43

Reserves Calculations − Monte Carlo Method

• Then crystal ball program will do the same
A, acres
calculations for all reservoir parameters (h, A, ,
Sw, o…etc.) used in the reserve calculations.
• Then it calculates the reserves using all these h, ft
probabilities numbers to define the 3 scenarios for
the reserve, P10 (Best case scenario), P50 (Most
likely case scenario) & P90 (Worst case scenario).
%
P90
Cum. probability

Sw
P50

o

P10

Reserve, MMstb

44

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Reserves Calculations − Reservoir Simulation Model

• Numerical reservoir simulation models are used to compute the changes
in pressures & saturations for all phases for each grid cell @ every time
step based on well known reservoir engineering equations & techniques to
predict the flow of reservoir fluids through porous media.
• Dynamic reservoir model combine the static model, pressures,
production, PVT, relative permeability & saturation data, facilities data,
wells locations & geometries to calculate the pressure & saturation
distribution into the reservoir.

45

Reserves Calculations − Reservoir Simulation Model

• Then the numerical reservoir simulation model is used to simulate several
production profiles scenarios to prepare the Full Field Development Plan
(FFDP) considering different exploitation schemes & operating conditions
to optimize the depletion plan.
800,000
New 30 Infills
Approved 28 Infills
700,000
W/O
Existing Wells
600,000 Inj. Supported Oil Potential
Target _I
V
500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

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Reserves Classification
• As a summary, Reserves classifications can be summarized as below.

Reserve classification
Probabilistic Calculated
Accuracy
Deterministic value
& Stochastic Category
method
method

(P1) Proven P1

(P2) unproven Probable P2

(P3) unproven Possible P3

Proven P90
1P Low estimate High probability

Reasonable
Best estimate
Proven + Probable 2P confidence for
P50 most likely
probability
Proven + Probable +
3P High estimate Low probability
Possible P10

47

Oil Recovery Methods

• Oil recovery is a technique used in oil reservoir to keep oil production
@ its maximum level to maximize the Ultimate Recovery (UR).
• Recoverable oil from Original Oil In Place (OOIP) is recovered through 3
main recovery processes, Primary, Secondary & Tertiary recoveries.

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Oil Recovery Methods

Hydrocarbon Recovery Methods

Primary Recovery Secondary Recovery Tertiary Recovery

Miscible
Water Flooding
Gas Injection
Artificial Lift Natural Flow

Immiscible Co2 injection

Pressure Maintenance
Gas Injection WAG

S/R Solution Gas Drive

Chemical
Surfactants slugs
Flooding
Micro-Emulsion flooding
PCP Gas Cap Expansion Polymers injection
Alkaline – Surfactant –
Polymer (ASP)
ESP Gravity Drainage
Wettability reversal

Jet pump Rock Expansion Thermal Steam injection

Recovery Steam drive
Gas lift Water Drive In-situ combustion
COFCAW method

49

Oil Recovery Methods

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Oil Recovery Methods

1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion):
• The initial stage of oil production from reservoirs is called primary
production where @ this stage, the oil is forced to the surface
either by natural reservoir forces or by using any of the Artificial
Lift methods without applying any of the pressure support methods.
• In the naturally oil primary recovery process, reservoir pressure may be
depleted in such way that it is not able to deliver the oil to the surface.
• The natural reservoir forces depends on rock & fluid properties,
geological structure & geometry of the reservoir, & to some
extent the rate of oil & gas production. These natural reservoir
forces are such as:

– Rock & liquid expansion drive mechanism

where oil is produced due to pore volume
compressibility (Cf), i.e., rock expansion, oil
expansion, the expansion of the gases in
solution inside the oil.

51

Oil Recovery Methods

1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion): Wellbore

– Gravity drainage drive mechanism where oil

is naturally moving from the updip (high Secondary
gas cap

structure) of the reservoir towards the well

penetrating the downdip (low structure).

– Depletion or solution gas drive mechanism Oil producing wells

in which oil is produced due to the energy

resulted of gas liberation from the crude oil & Original conditions

the subsequent expansion of the solution Oil producing wells

gas with the reservoir pressure depletion.

50% depleted

– Displacement by movement of naturally

pressurized fluids in a communication with
the reservoir (i.e. natural bottom water drive
from an aquifer or top gas cap drive or a
combination between gas cap & an aquifer).

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Oil Recovery Methods

• Just to remember that reservoirs are classified based on the drive
mechanism as follow:
Gas Oil
Reservoirs
Reservoirs Reservoirs
Reservoirs

Without Under-Saturated (Pi

Under-Saturated Saturated
Saturated
Water Drive > Pb) (Pi >(P
Pbi )< Pb)
(Pi < Pb)
With Without Depletion Drive
Water Drive
With Water Drive Without Solution-gas drive
Depletion Drive
Water Drive Water Drive
With Water Drive Gas Cap Drive
Solution-gas drive

With Water Drive

Active Water Drive
Gas Cap Drive

Combination Drive
A
cti
ve
53 W
at
er
Dr
iv
e

Oil Recovery Methods o

C

1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion): bi

na
ti
• In the naturally oil primary recovery process, when the reservoir on
Dr
pressure is depleted in such way that it is not able to deliver the oil to iv
the surface so, in this case, one of the Artificial Lift (A/L) methods is e

applied to produce the oil from the bottomhole to surface.

54

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Oil Recovery Methods

1. Primary Recovery (Natural Depletion):
• There are many Artificial Lift (A/L) methods applied in the field such as:

Sucker Rod (S/R) Hydraulic

Progressing Cavity Electric Submersible Gas Lift
Pump Jet Pump
Pump (PCP) Pump (ESP)
Production
Injected
gas

Tubing

Gas lift
Casing valve

Packe
r
Oil
reservoir

Rod pumps Rodless pumps

55

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• In the secondary recovery stage of oil production, most reservoir oil
remains in place after the natural energy that moves oil inside the
reservoir has been depleted.
• In this case, injecting water or gas into the oil reservoirs to increase the
natural force that is required to maintain the reservoir pressure @ a
certain level & force moving some of the remaining oil to the wells.
Injection well P r o d u c i n g well

Water
Oil

Oil bank

Water + Water + Oil + gas + water

residual oil movable oil

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Water Injection (W.I) into a reservoir is not a matter of just dumping water
into the wells.
• So, one of the major factors to be studied before applying W.I project is to
select W.I pattern (location & numbers of the injectors to the producers).
• Several types of water injection patterns are used worldwide includes:
1. Peripheral pattern.

2. Irregular pattern.
Peripheral pattern Irregular pattern
3. Regular direct or staggered line
drive patterns.

4. Regular spots patterns (two, three,

four, five, seven & nine spots).
Direct line drive pattern
Regular five spots
pattern

57

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• This is an example of a regular 5 spots injection pattern (every oil
producer well is surrounded with 4 W.I wells).

Regular five spots pattern

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Selection of the injection pattern depends on:
►
Heterogeneity of reservoir facies:
Infill or irregular pattern is recommended to
catch most of the oil trapped due to these
bad facies.

►
Way to develop the field:
Some companies refuse the way of drill infill
injectors or pattern application as they still
believe that they will cause a lot of bypassed oil
& they are only to apply the peripheral W.I.

59

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Voidage Replacement Ratio (VRR) is defined as the ratio of the total
injected reservoir volume to the total produced reservoir volume
measured @ reservoir conditions.
• VRR is an indicator for the injection efficiency which refers to how
much injection fluids were consumed to replace the produced volume
of oil, gas & water from the reservoir by the injected fluids.
• Required WI volume = (Produced oil volume + Produced Free gas volume
+ Produced water volume) @ reservoir conditions

Q i βw = Q o βo + R p − R s ×Qo βg + Q w βw
o , w : oil & water formation volume factors, res. bbl/stb
g : gas formation volume factor, res. bbl/scf
Qo , Qw : oil & water rates, stb/d
Rp , Rs : producing & solution gas/oil ratios, scf/stb.
(Rp – : free gas production rate, scf/d
Rs) * Qo
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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Then, the Voidage Replacement Ratio (VRR) equation is given by:

Qi βw
VRR =
Q o βo + R p − R s ×Qo βg + Q w βw
• Optimum VRR = 1  the injected volume displace the same
hydrocarbon volume from the reservoir.

• If VRR < 1  injected volume is LOW & MORE injection is required to

support reservoir pressure & decrease productivity decline.

• If VRR > 1  injected volume is HIGH & LESS injection is required to

avoid early breakthrough or water fingering.

61

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Mobility ratio () is the ratio between mobility of the displacing fluid
(WATER) to mobility of the displaced fluid (OIL).
keff.w kabs k rw
μw 𝐤𝐫𝐰𝛍𝐨
λw μw =
𝐌= = =
λo keff.o kabs kro 𝐤𝐫𝐨𝛍𝐰
μo μo
• Mobility ratio () should always be ≤ (1) in order to get the maximum
favorable sweep efficacy without early breakthrough or water fingering.

Favorable Mobility ratio () ≤ (1) Un-Favorable Mobility ratio () > (1)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Mobility ratio () is a key element in design of the W.I project as it is
considered as principal indicator used to determine sweep efficiency.
• This is a comparison between the flood front advance & sweep
efficiency in both homogeneous & heterogeneous reservoirs for
mobility ratio () = 1

High sweep efficiency in the Homogeneous Poor sweep efficiency in the Heterogeneous
reservoir for Mobility Ratio () = 1 reservoir for Mobility Ratio () = 1

63

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Oil producer
Areal (Pattern) Sweep Efficiency (Ea):
• It is defined as the fraction of the reservoir
Water
area in the HORIZONTAL plane that is invaded
invaded & swept by the injected (displacing) area

to the total reservoir area @ a certain time.

W.I
• It depends primarily upon the relative flow
properties of oil & the injected water, reservoir
heterogeneity & the injection pattern used to
flood the reservoir.
Ea=

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Oil
W.I
producer
Vertical (Invasion) Sweep Efficiency (Ez) or (Ei): Water
invaded
• It is defined as the fraction of the reservoir area
area in the VERTICAL plane that is invaded &
swept by the injected (displacing) to the
total reservoir area @ a certain time.
• It depends primarily upon vertical reservoir
heterogeneity (variation in vertical permeability).
Ez =

Flood front advance (Vertical or horizontal) can be detected using the

simulation model prediction or by using RST logs in monitoring wells.

65

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
Volumetric (Macroscopic) Sweep Efficiency (Ev):
• It is also known as the MACROSCOPIC displacement efficiency or
Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) in which there will be NO change in
the oil properties due to the injected fluids such as in the normal W.I.
• It is defined as the sweep
Ea: Areal Sweep Eff.
efficiency effect caused by
both of areal (Ea) & vertical (Ez)
sweep efficiencies.
• It is expressed as Ev = Ea * Ez

Ez: Vertical Sweep Eff.

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
Displacement (Microscopic) Sweep Efficiency (Em) or (Ed):
• It is the improvement of the normal displacement efficiency due to
the ability of the injected fluids to displace much more amount of
the remaining oil from the reservoir without leaving bypassed oil
behind in the flooded area such as applied in the EOR methods.
• In this case, there will be a change in the oil properties either due to
chemicals used in the injected fluids as polymer or
surfactants flooding or the injected fluid itself as in the miscible
gas injection.
• We can see in this figure that
however the normal W.I
swept the area but on a
microscopical scale still
of any is
there of the EOR methods.
trapped oil that was not Microscopical scale

recovered that requires application

67

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
• Target for the EOR process is the TRAPPED oil in the SWEPT areas
& BYPASSED oil in the UN-SWEPT areas of the reservoir.

SWEPT area
UN-SWEPT area

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery:
Total (Overall) Sweep Efficiency (E):
• The product of the 3 sweep efficiencies determines the total
sweep efficiency or the overall displacement efficiency (E)
or the recovery factor.

E  Ev Ed  E a E z Ed

69

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
• W.I displaces oil by pushing it to the
Sor
producer. In an ideal case, it would be a
piston-like displacement. Injected Initial oil
Sw

water saturation
bank

Swi

Distance
• But in reality, the most realistic model
Sor
of oil displaced by W.I is not a PISTON-
LIKE displacement, but the front
Sw

Injected Initial oil

advance is called LEAKY PISTON water saturation
which is affected by the gravity, the bank
capillary forces & the permeabilities Swi
variation. Distance

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

71

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

73

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HOMOGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

75

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

77

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

79

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
Flood front advance with time for a HETEROGENEOUS reservoir
(Mobility Ratio = 1)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
• Water fractional flow (ƒw) equation is an equation that can qualitatively
show the ratio of water flow rate (qw) to total flow rate (qt) of fluids @
certain time & location inside the reservoir in a water injection system.
Oil producer
• Generally, higher values of (ƒw) indicate
LESS efficient displacement
while lower value of (ƒw)
indicates MORE efficient

Un-invaded area
displacement.

Water injection
invaded area

W.I

81

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
• In order to know the fraction of water (ƒw) present in the reservoir @ any
time let’s assume (qo) & (qw) represent oil & water flow rates respectively
@ the reservoir conditions.
• From Darcy’s law for fluid flow through porous media, oil (qo) & water (qw)
flow rates are expressed as:

𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝐴 Δ𝑃 𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝐴 Δ𝑃
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑤 = 𝑞𝑡 = 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑞𝑤
𝜇𝑜 Δ𝑥 𝜇𝑤 Δ𝑥
• Then oil & water fractions, (ƒo) & (ƒw) in the flow stream @ the reservoir
conditions are calculated as follow:

𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑤 𝑞𝑤
𝑓𝑜 = 𝒕 = 𝑜 + 𝑞𝑤 𝑓𝑤 = 𝒕 = 𝑜 + 𝑞𝑤 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑤 = 1
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
• Then, Water flow fractions (ƒw) in the flow stream @ reservoir conditions is
given by:
k kr w A ΔP
1
𝑓𝑤 = qw
= k kr o μw Δx
=
q o +q w A ΔP
+
( k kr w A ΔP
1+
k ro𝖚 w
μo Δx μw k rw𝖚 o
Δx 𝐤𝐫𝐰
• Since relative permeability ratio ( ) is a direct function in water
𝐤𝐫𝐨
saturation (Sw) so, we can define the water fractional flow (ƒw) by means of
water saturation (Sw) as follow:

1 1
𝑓𝑤 = = uw
1 + k ro u w 1+
k rw uo uo ae−bSw
83

Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
• Now we can calculate & plot the different values of water fractional flow (ƒw)
vs. its corresponding values of water saturation (Sw).
• This will result-in S-shape curve that describe the amount of water flowing
inside the reservoir (ƒw) @ any given water saturation (Sw).
1 1 1
Fraction Of Water Flowing (ƒw)

• So, @ anytime, just measure the

=
𝑓𝑤 = krouw uw
−bSw
0.9 1 + k rw uo 1 +u o ae

surface W.C & convert it to the reservoir 0.8

condition to get the corresponding water 0.7
fractional flow (ƒw) value. 0.6
0.5
• Then use this plot to estimate the
0.4
corresponding current water saturation 0.3
(Sw) in the reservoir @ this given water 0.2
Swi 1- Sor
fractional flow (ƒw). 0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Water Saturation (Sw %)

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Oil Recovery Methods

2. Secondary Recovery: Fractional of water flow equation (ƒw)
• Water−Oil Ratio (WOR) plot (semi log graph of WOR vs. cumulative oil
production) is a common tool used to evaluate reservoir performance &
forecast the ultimate recovery.
• The graph is extrapolated to higher WOR values to estimate ultimate
recovery.
• @ very high WOR values, the
data points bend upward
& form a vertical line as
the reservoir is
completely swept
to a residual oil saturation
& the maximum
waterflood recovery is
achieved.

85

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
• Tertiary recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) refers to the
incremental in the recovered oil by producing most of the
remaining reserve specially the bypassed oil that CAN’T be
recovered either by the primary recovery (natural flow or
pumping) or by the secondary recovery (water or gas
injection with or without pumping) methods.
• Target for the EOR process is the
trapped oil in the swept
areas of the reservoir &
bypassed oil in the un-
swept areas of the reservoir.
• Volume of the produced oil by
applying the tertiary
recovery depends on
reservoir properties &
the applied EOR technique.

Trapped oil in
the swept areas
Bypassed oil in
the un-swept
areas
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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
• Generally, from Darcy’s equation for the fluid flow through porous media:

0.00708 ∗ keff−x∗ h ∗ Pe − Pwf

Qx =
βxμx ∗ Ln rre
w

• So, to increase production rate, one of the following must be applied:

►
To increase the reservoir permeability (k) by perforations, acidizing
or hydraulic fracturing techniques (primary recovery method).
► To increase the term of (Pe – Pwf) by applying water injection to
support the outer boundary reservoir pressure (Pe)
(secondary recovery method).
► To decrease the oil viscosity (o) or increase the water viscosity (w)
as used in the EOR methods (tertiary recovery “EOR”
methods).

87

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
• This is a summary for the common EOR methods.
Tertiary Recovery − EOR Methods

Miscible gas Immiscible gas Chemical Thermal

injection injection flooding recovery

Co2 Surfactants Steam

injection slugs injection

Micro-Emulsion Steam
WAG
flooding drive

Polymers In-situ
injection combustion

Alkaline- COFCAW
Surfactant- method
Polymer (ASP)

Wettability
reversal

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Miscible Gas Injection Process:
• Miscibility refers to the ability of the injected gas & the reservoir
fluids to be completely mixed with each others into one phase.
• Capillary force that hold oil in the rock & the interfacial tension force
(IFT) between oil & gas can be eliminated or minimized if
the injected gas is miscible with the oil that was left in the
reservoir.
• Minimum Miscible Pressure (MMP) is the lowest pressure @ which
the reservoir oil & injection gas are miscible in all ratios
which is determined in the lab by the Slim Tube Test.
• Miscibility occurs when the vaporized components from the crude
oil alter the composition of the injected (Co2) & become
enriched (Co2) that is miscible with the oil.

89

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Miscible Gas Injection Process:
• Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) can also be injected as a liquid slug
because it is miscible with the oil in the first contact.
• Enriched Gases which are dry gases rich with larger molecular weight
hydrocarbons (ethane, propane, butane,……., pentane) can be also
injected into the reservoir as it will be miscible with the crude oil
after multiple contacts.
• The formed miscible zone depends on the pressure, temperature &
the composition of the in-place crude oil & the injected gases.
• Theoretically, residual oil saturation (Sor) in the miscible flooding
is ZERO because the existing oil will be swelled by the injected
gas forming one phase move inside the reservoir.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Immiscible Gas Injection Process:
• In the immiscible gas injection, injected gas does not mix with oil
during the displacement process.
• Historically, immiscible gas injection was first used for reservoir
pressure maintenance.
• Later, gas injection into oil reservoirs was used to increase oil
recovery by immiscible displacement.
• A variety of gases have been used for immiscible gas displacement for
example, nonhydrocarbon gases such as Co2 & N2.

91

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (1- Co2 injection):
• Co2 EOR application is widely used method among the other methods
in order to enhance the oil recovery that is applicable in both
clastic (sandstone) & calcites (carbonates) reservoirs.
• Co2 improve oil recovery
by reducing oil
viscosity, lowering
the interfacial
tension &
vaporize both
intermediate & some of
the high molecular
weight
components from the
crude oil when
become in contact with
92 it.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (1- Co2 injection):
• In the immiscible (Co2) flooding process, a mixture of carbonated
water slug (normally consists of 40% Co2 + 60% water by
volume) equivalent to approximately 20% of the pore volume (P.V)
is injected into the reservoir to ensure better displacement.
• The immiscible (Co )2 EOR could Processing
gas plant
Production
well
reach 20% recovery over the primary Gas injector
well
& the secondary mechanisms.
Residual oil

CO22
CO
&
&
Oil
Oil
CO2

Co2 Immiscible Oil

region bank

93

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Immiscible Gas Injection Process − (2- Water Alternating Gas - WAG):
• Due to the low viscosity of the injected
gases, viscous fingering may
occur that cause bypassed oil that will
decrease the sweep efficiency & hence
affect the total recovery from the injection
process.
• Water Alternating Gas (WAG) flooding is
an EOR process where both gas
injection (usually carbon dioxide Co2)
followed by water injection is used
alternately for periods of
time to provide better sweep efficiency
by controlling the mobility to reduce
viscous fingering & gas
channeling from injectors to
producers.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding:
• In chemical flooding, we use chemical solution as displacement fluid
to alter the physical properties of the formation fluids
either by reducing the interfacial tension between reservoir oil & the
injected fluid or improve oil mobility & increase sweep
efficiency of the injected fluid that is significantly improve
oil recovery.
• It is mainly includes adding special various chemical agents in the
injected stream such as Alkali (A), Surfactant (S) and/or
Polymer (P) that are react with the reservoir fluids in such way that it
cause the oil to become more movable.
• These types of chemicals can be used separately such as polymer
flooding, surfactants flooding, alkaline flooding or to be
used in a combination with each other for the different flooding
operations such as in case of the polymer/surfactant binary combination
flooding & the surfactant/polymer/alkali ternary combination flooding.

95

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (1- Surfactants slug - Alkaline water flooding):
2𝛔𝐰−𝐨Cosθ
• Capillary pressure equation is given by: ΔP = Pc = Pw − Po =
r

• So, reducing the Interfacial Tension force (IFT) between oil &
formation water (𝛔𝐰−𝐨) will decrease the capillary force
that holds the oil in place & hence allowing it to move easily.
• General idea of the surfactants is that if the oil & water are placed
together in a container so they will remain immiscible
even if we strongly shake the container.
• But if some soap is added to the container, we will observe that they
become miscible with each other.
• Surfactants or Alkaline (NaOH, Na4SiO4 or KOH) are chemicals
added to the injected water to increase its PH that will
resulting-in formation of the surfactants (soap) @ the oil-water
interface.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (1- Surfactants slug - Alkaline water flooding):
• This surfactant in turns lower the Interfacial Tension force (IFT)
between oil & water that aids to easier displacement of the crude oil.
• In the Alkali flooding operation, we start with a softened water pre-
flush injection followed by an injection of an Alkaline solution
slug (1.5% NaOH by weight) about 10 - 30% of the pore volume
(P.V) followed by continuous injection of drive plain water.
Injector Producer

Drive Alkaline Softened

plain  solution  water
water slug
pre-
flush

97

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (2- Micro Emulsion Flooding - Micellar Slug):
• Micellar slug is a mixture of micro-emulsions made of water +
surfactants with small amounts + Alcohol where the entire
mixture will act to solve the remaining oil in place.
• Adding Alcohol (isopropanol or methanol) to the surfactants slug will
improve the sweep efficiency because Alcohol helps for
reducing the surfactant adsorption by the formation rock
grains.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection):
• Generally, from Darcy’s equation for fluid flow through porous media,
flow rate is inversely proportional with fluid viscosity ().
0.00708 ∗ keff−w ∗ h ∗ Pe − Pwf
Qw =
re
β w μ w ∗ Ln r
w
• So, increasing of water viscosity (w) to a very high value will
reducing its mobility allowing oil to be much easier
mobile inside the reservoir to be produced.
• Polymer flooding is an EOR method that uses polymer solutions to
increase oil recovery by decreasing the water/oil mobility
ratio by increasing the viscosity of the displacing water (w).
• When adding 5% by weight of this polymer to water, water viscosity
will increase by about 20 - 25 times resulting-in reducing the
relative permeability to water (krw).

99

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection):
• Polymer injection will increase both areal & vertical sweep efficiencies
by viscosifying the water so that water fingering is reduced.

Using plain water Using polymer

injection without with the
polymer injected water

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection):
• Polymers are compounds with high
molecular weights since they
consist of long chains of
molecules.

• Inaccessible pore volume: polymer

does not invade all the pore space
that is invaded by normal plain W.I due
to the large size of the polymer
molecules.
oil & polymers
• So, increase
even if we will injection
plugthe the low
pressure to force the polymer
permeability areas to causing
pass, it
Inaccessible pore volume
will break & lose its function.
bypassed (plugged by polymer)

101

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (3- Polymers Injection):
• In field practice, a large bank of
brine (30% of the pore volume
(P.V)) is prepared
which is thickened by
adding a low concentration
of polymer (5%) to
form the injection slug of
polymerized water that will be
injected into the
reservoir.
• Then this polymerized water
injection slug is
followed by an ordinary brine
slug without polymers
content (plain water) to
flush out some of the
remaining oil bank.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (4- Alkaline – Surfactant – Polymer "ASP"):
• A new modification to the chemical process is by adding surfactant &
polymer to the alkaline that resulted in a new EOR method known as
Alkaline-Surfactant-Polymer (ASP).
• ASP flood reduces the remaining oil saturation by developing a bank
of oil that when reaches the production wells, oil will be
produced with water @ increased oil cut.
Injector Producer Producer

Surfactant
slug
Polymer
Oil- Residuel oïland
Residuel oïl and
Flood thickened Oil-
water resident brine
fresh water resident brine
water Bank
water
water Bank

103

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Chemicals Flooding − (5- Wettability Reversal):
• This oil recovery technique is relatively new & there are only a few
small-scale field trials in operations (premature application).
• By using the proper surfactant such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
oil wet reservoirs, formation wettability can be changed from oil-
wet to water-wet.
• In order to predict the performance of this technique, it is first
necessary to determine the wettability of the reservoir rock then find a
chemical which could be used to economically reverse the
wettability.
• Laboratory tests should be run to determine the residual oil
saturations resulting from the two types of displacement (with
normal existing wettability & after reversing it).

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery:
• Generally, from Darcy’s equation for fluid flow through porous media, oil
flow rate (𝐐𝐨) is inversely proportional with oil viscosity (o).

0.00708 ∗ keff−o ∗ h ∗ Pe − Pwf

𝐐𝐨 =
βoμo ∗ Ln re
rw

• Decreasing oil viscosity (o) by exposing the crude oil in the reservoir
to high temperature of about 250oC will increase its
mobility allowing oil to be much more easier mobile inside the
reservoir to be produced.
• Thermal recovery applications are used for the reservoir that contains
relatively heavy (viscous) crude oil or for the oil with low
API gravity which is not movable in the reservoir under the normal
production process or is produced but without commercial volumes.

105

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff-Puff method):
• The general principle of steam injection is to heat heavy oil to reduce
its viscosity so that it flows more easily into the well.
• For field application, Huff-Puff technique Steam
(wellbore stimulation or socks
technique) is used in which steam is
injected into a producing well
for a period of time ranges from few
days to weeks or more that is
called the period of injection.
Oil
Steam
Steam

Steam injection to downhole

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff-Puff method):
• Then close the well for another period (usually 2
X
days) until the steam soaking & the heat exchange
between the hot steam & the reservoir rock is
completely takes place.
• This reservoir rock will act as a heat exchanger & will Heat Heat
transmit this heat to the heavy crudes in the vicinity
to the wellbore & decrease its viscosity & hence
Oil & steam
increasing its mobility allowing oil to move easily to water
the wellbore to be produced.
• Finally, open the well for production again where the
production rate is expected to increase to fold as
prior to stimulation or more. Steam
Oil water
• Note that steam water is produced with oil to surface.

107

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff-Puff method):
• As the heated oil nearby the wellbore is Cycle

produced, temperature around the wellbore

Pre-stimulated Oil Production

will decline & the well productivity decrease

Oil Production

until reaching the pre-stimulated value.

• @ that time we should repeat the previous
Production Rate

cycle (inject steam – wait for soaking time –

produce the heated oil from the same well)
again to can produce the well again.
Steam injection

• In some applications, we can apply 4 – 10

cycles or more in the same well to can
produce the reserve around the well.

T1 T2 Time

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (1- Steam Injection or Huff-Puff method):
• The produced oil to the injected steam ratio declines after the first few
months. In every cycle the maximum production rate that can
be achieved is sometimes lower than that for the previous cycle.
Cycle Cycle
Pre-stimulated Oil Production

Oil Production

Oil Production

Oil Production
Oil Production
Oil Production
Production Rate

Steam injection
Steam injection
Steam injection

Steam injection

Steam injection
Injection Periods
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Time

109

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (2- Steam Displacement or Hot Water Drive):
• In a steam displacement technique, steam pushes the oil from the
steam injector well towards the oil producer location.
• This displacement process like the normal plain water flooding, but it
involves the propagation of heat from steam injection wells to the
oil producer wells.
Oil
Steam

Oil & Steam water Oil

Heat Heat

Steam injection Production from the flushed

to downhole oil by steam displacement

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (2- Steam Displacement or Hot Water Drive):

111

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding):
• In this case oxygen or air is injected down to the bottom of the
injector well then create an ignition by using down hole
combustion device (gas burner, electric heater, self igniting heater…. etc).
• The heat generated by the burning oil reduces the viscosity of the
unburned oil, thereby increasing production.

• There are two types of the in-situ combustion, Forward & Reverse.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding):
1- FORWARD In-situ Combustion:
• In this case oxygen or air is injected
down to the bottom of the injector Injection well Producer well Air
well then create an ignition to crack Oil
the heavy oil components in the
crude oil to be easier to move
towards the oil producing wells. Igniter

• Zone of burning oil around the

injector is called the combustion Air Air Oil
front that is spread & pushed from
the injection well towards
the producing wells by Burned Combustion
zone front (burn)
means of the injected air & the
combustion gases.

113

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding):
1- FORWARD In-situ Combustion:

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (3- In-situ Combustion or Fire Flooding):
2- REVERSE In-situ Combustion:
• Reverse combustion is useful for
Injection well Producer well
heavier oils that offer more Air Oil
resistance to flow.
• In this case the combustion
takes place in the oil producer
to decrease oil
Oil Bank Igniter
viscosity around it.
• Air is injected in the injector well
that will act as a displacing Air
phase for this heated crude oil Combustion Zone Oil
around the oil producer.

115

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (4- COFCAW method or Wet Combustion):
• COFCAW: Combination Of Forward Combustion And Waterflooding.
• In this case the combustion takes place in the injector well.
• Then water is injected into this injector well to be heated with the
heat generated form the combustion process.
• Some of this heated injected water will be converted to steam.
• This heated water in addition the created steam will act to displace
the heated oil towards oil producers.
• As the steam moves inside the reservoir, it will lose its temperature &
will condense again to a hot water which is also useful to
displace the oil towards the oil producers.
• Reverse in-situ combustion can be used also with the COFCAW
method.

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Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (4- COFCAW method or Wet Combustion):

117

Oil Recovery Methods

3. Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery − EOR):
Thermal Recovery − (4- COFCAW method or Wet Combustion):
• This schematic shows the temperature profile in the COFCAW method.

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Types of Flow &

Flow Performance
Relationships
119

Types of Flow
• Fluid flow is a part of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid dynamics.
• Fluid flow involves the motion of a fluid subjected to unbalanced force.
• This motion continues as long as unbalanced force is applied.

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Types of Flow
• Flow regimes or flow patterns mean the distribution of one fluid phase
relative to the other when they are flowing together.
• There are many types of fluids flow regimes (or flow patterns) based
on their own properties & the surroundings conditions that must be
recognized to describe the fluid flow behavior & reservoir pressure
distribution as a function of time such as:
1. Viscous & Non-Viscous Flow.
2. Laminar & Turbulent Flow.
3. Compressible, Slightly Compressible & Incompressible Flow.
4. Steady State Flow, Unsteady State Flow & Semi Steady (Pseudo
Steady) State Flow.
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical &
Hemispherical Flow).

121

Types of Flow
1. Viscous & Non-Viscous flow:
Fluids have LESS Fluids have MORE
resistance to flow are called resistance to flow are
Non-Viscous fluids such called Viscous fluids
as water & gas flow. such as a flow of honey.

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Types of Flow
1. Viscous & Non-Viscous flow:
• Newtonian fluids, such as water or oil, are characterized by a linear
relation between shear stress (applied force/area, “lb/100 ft2”) & shear
rate (rate @ which a fluid layers are sheared during flow “1/sec”).

• Newtonian fluid is independent of

the shear rate resulting in the Non-Newtonian
relationship between the shear stress fluids
vs. shear rate has a constant slope
that is corresponding to the viscosity. Viscosity

• Deviation from this behavior is called

Non-Newtonian fluids that does not
follow Newton's law of viscosity (i.e.,
constant viscosity independent of
stress), such as drilling muds.

123

Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow:
• Laminar flow or streamline flow
occurs when a fluid flow in
parallel straight layers without
mixing or disruption between
the layers.
– It occurs @ low velocities &
smaller pipes
diameters.
• Turbulent flow is a flow regime
characterized by chaotic
property since much eddies occurs in
the flow.
– In contrast to laminar flow, the
fluid no longer
travels in layers but
mixing across the tube.
• This is a real example for both Laminar
&
Turbulent flows.

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Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
• Of course, everyone is aware with this.
• Presence of gases in the Coca Cola causes this flow.

125

Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
• Similar to the flow of Coca Cola due to
presence of gases, Two-phase flow
of gas & liquids in the tubing can
occur in various forms that
affect the Vertical Lift
Performance (VLP), such as:

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Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
— Dispersed two-phase Bubble flow: one phase present in the form
of discrete droplets or bubbles in a continuous carrier phase (i.e.,
gas bubbles in liquid).

127

Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
— Slug (plug) flow: with increasing flow rate, smaller bubbles combines
together & generate larger bubbles known as a slug inside a
continuous phase of liquid.
— Churn flow: it is chaotic slug flow occurs @ higher flow rates than
the slug flow where bubble is deformed & the slug has random
motion.

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Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
— Annular flow: occurs @ much higher flow rates where gas flows as
a continuous phase in the middle of the pipe.
— Mist flow: occurs @ very higher flow rates where in this case, gas
phase become the continuous phase & liquid phase is present
as dispersed droplets.

129

Types of Flow
2. Laminar & Turbulent flow in Vertical Pipes:
• In fact, these different flow regimes exists inside the tubing during the
flowing condition that cause the pressure losses calculation inside the
tubing is NOT an easy task.

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Types of Flow
3. Compressible & Incompressible flow:
• Generally, reservoir fluids are classified into THREE main groups based
on their compressibility:
1. Incompressible fluid (Water):
Volume or density do not change Incompressible Fluid
with pressure changes.

2. Slightly Compressible fluid (Oil):

Volume or density slightly
changes with pressure changes

Volume
due to dissolved gas in solution.

3. Compressible fluids (Gas):

There is a large changes in Pressure
volume & density as a function of
pressure changes.

131

Types of Flow
4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow:
• There are THREE types of flow regimes occurs inside the reservoir
that must be recognized to describe the fluid flow behavior & reservoir
pressure distribution as a function of time (t) of production & @
any location (r) everywhere in the reservoir.
1. Steady State Flow.
(dP/dt)@ any (i) = 0 Steady State Flow
2. Unsteady State Flow. Steady State Flow
Semi Steady State Flow
3. Semi-Steady (Pseudo
Steady) State Flow.
Pressure

• Change of pressure with

time determine which type
of these flow regimes occurs Un-Steady State Flow

inside the reservoir.

(i)  any location in the reservoir including wellbore

Time
Time

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Types of Flow
4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow:
1. Steady State Flow:
• Steady-state flow is a flow condition where flow rate is constant &
the pressure @ any time (t) of production & everywhere @
any location (r) inside the reservoir remain constant.
• Steady-state flow occurs when there is an external support such as
gas cap & active aquifer which support the reservoir
pressure by creating a constant-pressure boundary.

(P/t) = (0)

ΔP = Pe – Pwf
Pressure distribution during steady state flow

133

Types of Flow
4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow:
2. Unsteady State Flow:
• Unsteady-state or transient flow is the conditions @ which the
pressure and/or flow rate changes with time (there is no
pressure support).
• Pressure @ any time (t) of production & everywhere @ any
location (r) inside the reservoir changes but not in the same
way i.e., not constant & non-uniform change.

(P/t) ≠ (0) ≠ constant

ΔP = Pe – Pwf
• An example for unsteady flow is the flow
through pipe of variable
diameters under variable pressures.

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Types of Flow
4. Steady, Unsteady & Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State flow:
3. Semi Steady (Pseudo Steady) State – PSS Flow:
• Pseudo Steady State (PSS) or semi steady state is a transition
period between the steady & unsteady state flows.
• During the Pseudo Steady State (PSS) flow regime, the reservoir
behaves as a tank & flow rate is constant.
• Reservoir pressure decreases in the same uniform constant rate
@ any time (t) of production & everywhere @ any location (r)
inside the reservoir (while production flow rate is constant).

Sealed boundary
(P/t)@ any (r) = constant

ΔP = Pe – Pwf
Shape of pressure profile
is unchanged over time

135

Types of Flow
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
• Shape of the reservoir has a significant effect on the fluid flow
behavior.
• Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries with many dipping angles
& many thicknesses.
• The actual flow geometry inside the reservoir may be represented by
one of the following flow geometries:
1. Linear flow.
2. Radial flow.
3. Spherical & Hemispherical flow.

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Types of Flow
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
1. Linear Flow:
• Linear flow regime is also called (One Dimensional Flow) that
occurs when flow lines are parallel & the fluid flows in a
single direction.
• This linear flow regime results from flow inside a hydraulic fracture
or along a horizontal well, or from flow in an
elongated reservoir, such as a channel reservoirs (formation
bounded by two parallel faults).

P1 P2

137

Types of Flow
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
2. Radial Flow:
• In the absence of reservoir heterogeneities, flow from away in the
reservoir into the wellbore will follow radial flow lines that is
also called (Two-Dimensional Flow).
• This is because fluids move toward the well from all directions &
converge @ the wellbore.

Plan view Side view

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Types of Flow
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
3. Spherical & Hemispherical Flow:
• This type of flow is also called (Three-Dimensional Flow) where the
well is connected to the producing zone through only one fraction.
• As the contact area between the
reservoir & the well
is reduced, fluids will travel
further through the
formation in the area near to the
wellbore to be produced.
• This will create an extra pressure
drop around the
wellbore.
• This type of completion is used to avoid gas cap & or active bottom
aquifer.
• Flow converges to a reduced contact between the well & the
reservoir is due to one of the following completions:

139

Types of Flow
5. Flow geometry inside the reservoir (Linear, Radial, Spherical flow):
3. Spherical & Hemispherical Flow:
– Partial perforation (Spherical Flow): a well is perforated @ mid of
the pay zone.
– Partial reservoir penetration or limited-entry completions
(Hemispherical Flow): a well only partially penetrates
the pay zone or fully penetrate the pay zone but only partially perforated
@ the upper or lower parts of the pay zone.

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Diffusivity Equation
• The diffusivity equation describe the fluid flow through porous media
in the reservoir to know the reservoir pressure & fluid saturation @ any
location (r) inside the reservoir @ any time (t) of production.
• Generally, it is a mass balance equation based on a combination of
Darcy work & the continuity equation:

Mass rate In – Mass rate Out = Mass rate of Accumulation

• Diffusivity equation in the partial differential form is as follow:

𝜕2 𝐩 1 𝜕𝐩 ∅𝛍𝐂𝐭
𝜕𝐩
+ =
k
P
𝜕𝐫
 permeability,
𝟐 md
 pressure, psia
𝐫 r
𝜕𝐫 0.000264 ∗ 𝐤
 radial position in the reservoir, ft
Ct  total compressibility, psi-1
t  time, hrs
𝜕𝐭
  porosity, fraction   viscosity, cp

141

Diffusivity Equation
• By solving the diffusivity equation, we can estimate the change in the
reservoir pressure with time 𝛛𝐩
𝛛𝐭 .
• From capillary pressure data we can estimate the change of saturation
with pressure 𝛛𝑺𝒘
𝛛𝐩 .

• Then we can predict the change of

𝛛𝑺𝒘
saturation with time as the
𝛛𝐭
multiply of the change in the
𝛛𝐩
by
reservoir pressure with time
𝛛𝐭
the change of saturation with
pressure 𝛛𝑺𝒘 .
𝛛𝐩

𝛛𝑺𝒘 𝛛𝐩 𝛛𝑺𝒘
= ×
𝛛𝐭

𝛛𝐭

𝛛𝐩
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Diffusivity Equation

𝜕2 𝐩 1 𝜕𝐩
∅𝛍𝐂𝐭 𝜕𝐩
+ =
𝜕𝐫
• Diffusivity equation
𝐫
𝟐 contains: 𝜕𝐫
– Some parameters such as (
0.000264 ∗ 𝐤
pressure.
& Ct)
𝜕𝐭
which are dependent on the

– Some other parameters as (k) which is dependent on the saturation.

• This term (  Ct / k) in the diffusivity equation is constant with time (t) &
everywhere @ any distance (r) in the reservoir.
• But why this term ( Ct) in the diffusivity equation is constant while both of
(Ct) & () changes with pressure (i.e., production time)?

143

Diffusivity Equation
• The answer is that since compressibility (C) is defined with any of these
equations.

1 𝛛V 1 𝛛𝞀 1 𝛛β
C= = =
V 𝛛P 𝛛P β 𝛛P
Volume 𝞀Density Formation volume factor

• So, the compressibility (C) can be represented by oil formation factor

(o) changes with pressure.

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Diffusivity Equation
• But from fluid PVT analysis we have: 2.0

1.8
o
– Above bubble point pressure (Pb), 1.6 Pb

decreasing of reservoir pressure 1.4

with time causes (o) to increase & 1.2

(o) to decrease till the (Pb).

1.0
1.1

0.9 o
– Below bubble point pressure (P ), b
(o) start decreasing & (o) start 0.7

increasing. 0.5
Pb
0.3
• ( Ct) ≈ ( )  multiplying of almost 0 2000 4000 6000

equal opposite slopes = constant Pressure, psi

Pressure, psig

145

Fluid Flow Modeling

• Fluid flow modeling process involves:
– Fluid flow in a porous media
– Flow through wellbore
– Flow through pipes

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• To flow a well, there must be a
pressure difference (P) from FTHP
reservoir pressure (Ps) to the
wellbore bottomhole
flowing pressure (Pwf)
then to Flowing
Tubing Head Pressure (FTHP).
• If the wellbore bottomhole
flowing pressure (Pwf) is
equal to the reservoir
pressure (Ps), then there will be
no inflow.
• If the wellbore bottomhole
flowing pressure (Pwf) is
P Ps
Pwf
zero (theoretically), the
flow would be @ a maximum
possible rate
i.e. maximum well production
147
rate for oil wells & the Absolute
Open Flow (AOF) for gas wells.

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• This is a simple schematic for a well producing with flow rate (q) from a
formation with a reservoir pressure of (Ps) & the bottom hole flowing
pressure is (Pwf).
• Pressure difference between the static reservoir pressure (Ps) & the
bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) is called the DRAWDOWN (P).

𝚫𝐏 = 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 q

• Flow rate (q) is directly proportional to this

pressure drawdown (P) & is
inversely proportional to the
corresponding bottom hole flowing
pressure (Pwf).
kh𝚫𝐏
𝐪= re
μβ Ln r Ps
w Pwf

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• As a fact, Bottomhole flowing pressure (Pwf1) that is required to produce
low production rate of (200 bbl/day) is HIGHER than (Pwf2) that is required
to produce a high production rate of (500 bbl/day).

Ps
Ps

Pwf 200 bbl/day

Pwf11
Pwf 500 bbl/day
Pwf22
P wf

149

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Productivity Index (P.I or “J”) is a measure of well ability to deliver reservoir
fluids with rate (q) @ a specific pressure drop (P) from (Ps) to (Pwf).
• Mathematically, ideal Productivity Index (P.I) (assuming no skin damage)
is a ratio between the TOTAL well production (qt) to its corresponding
pressure drawdown (P = Ps − Pwf) which is measured in (bbl/d/psi).

𝐪𝐭 = 𝐪𝐭
𝐏. 𝐈𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = kh 𝐬 𝐰𝐟
re
= μβ Ln
rw
𝚫𝐏 (𝐏 − 𝐏
• But in fact, to calculate the actual) well productivity index, the skin (S)
value & the pressure drop due to skin (Ps) should be included in the
above productivity index equations.
𝐪𝐭 = 𝐪𝐭
𝐏. 𝐈𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 = kh 𝐬 𝐰𝐟 𝐬
re
= μβ Ln +𝐒
rw
𝚫𝐏 (𝐏 − 𝐏 −
150 𝚫𝐏 )

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Note that Productivity Index (P.I) is a valid measure of the well productivity
potential only if the well is flowing @ pseudo steady state conditions.
• Therefore, in order to accurately measure the productivity index of a well, it
is essential that the well is allowed to flow @ a constant flow rate for a
sufficient time to reach the pseudo steady state as shown in this figure.
• The figure indicates that during

Productivity
the transient flow period, the

Index
Productivity Index
calculated values of the
Productivity Index (P.I) will vary
depending upon the time @
which the measurements of
Ps
the bottom hole flowing Pressures

pressure is (Pwf) are made.

Pwf (P = Ps - Pwf)

Transient flow Pseudo steady state

151

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• By monitoring the Productivity Index (P.I) during the life of a well, it is
possible to determine if the well has become damaged due to completion,
workover, production, injection operations, or mechanical problems.
• If the measured Productivity Index (P.I) has an unexpected decline, one
of the above problems should be investigated.

q
q&
P

Time

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Flow Efficacy (F.E) is the ratio between the ACTUAL well drawdown to
the IDEAL well draw down or the ratio between the IDEAL productivity
index (calculated @ zero skin) of a well to its ACTUAL productivity
index (considering the pressure drop due to skin “Ps”).

Actual Drawdown Ideal Productivity

Flow Efficiency Index
=Ideal Drawdown Actual
= Productivity Index

Flow Efficency = 𝐉𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐚𝐥 = 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟 − 𝚫𝐏𝐬𝐤𝐢𝐧

𝐉
𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥

153

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) of a reservoir is a relationship
between the flowing bottom hole pressures (Pwf) & the corresponding
production flow rates (q) that shows the productive capacity & well
performance.
• For single phase flow (oil or water), the ideal straight line connecting
between the points represents the Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR).
• Slope of this straight line = INVERSE of the well Productivity Index (P.I).
• Extrapolation of the straight line to flow rate = (0) is the current average
static pressure (Ps).
Ps
Flow rate Pressure

Slope = 1 / P.I

Time, hrs Pwf

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Darcy showed that if the reservoir is producing kh 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
ABOVE the bubble point pressure (Pb), then 𝐪= r
flow rate (q) is directly proportional to μβ Ln r e
w
this pressure drawdown (P) & is inversely
proportional to the corresponding bottom kh𝚫𝐏
hole flowing pressure (Pwf). 𝐪= r
Pwf μβ Ln r e
Drawdown (P) = Ps – Pwf w
Ps
Production rate (q) α Drawdown (P)
P1
Production rate (q) α (1 / Pwf) Pwf-1
P2
• So, for reservoir inflow,
reducing the bottom
hole flowing Pwf-2
pressure (Pwf) will
result-in increasing of 0 q1 q2 q
well flow rate (q)
155 & vice versa.

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Note that, this constant Productivity Index (P.I) based on Darcy flow
equation is ONLY applied for a single-phase flow (oil) when the
drawdown (P = Ps ‒ Pwf) @ the wellbore leaves the reservoir pressure
(Ps) everywhere in the reservoir to remains ABOVE the bubble point
pressure (Pb).
• But if the drawdown @ the IPR curve is due to two
wellbore causes a decrees of the P wf phase flow (oil & gas)
reservoir pressure (Ps) in
Ps
some parts of the P1
the bottom
reservoir hole
& in turns flowing
pressure (Pwf) to be BELOW the Pwf-1
P2
bubble point pressure (Pb) that
develop TWO PHASE FLOW (oil
& gas) so in this case the straight-
line relationship with a constant Pwf-2
Productivity Index (P.I) is NO
LONGER APPLICABLE. 0
q1 q2 q

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• In this case, a new approach that is called Vogel equation is used for the
varied (non constant) Productivity Index (P.I) case when the reservoir
pressure (Ps) & or bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) reaches BELOW
the bubble point pressure (Pb) such as for a well performance
producing from a solution gas drive reservoirs.
• Vogel new approach for two phase flow (oil & gas) is summarized by this
equation calculated @ flow efficiency = 1 (no skin).

2
𝐪𝐨 𝐰𝐟 𝐏𝐰𝐟
= 1 − 0.2 − 0.8
𝐏 𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬
𝐪𝐨(𝐦𝐚𝐱)
qo  oil production rate, stb/d @ the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf)
qo(max)  theoretical max. oil production rate, stb/d @ max. drawdown when Pwf = 0
 producing bottom hole flowing pressure, psig
Pwf
 static reservoir pressure, psig
Ps
157

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Vogel equation is a quadratic (parabola) equation with dimensionless
variables ranging from (0) to (1) along each axis.
• So, plotting the ratio (qo / qo(max)) vs. the ratio (Pwf / Ps) will result-in curved
relationship.
• Degree of the curvature is a strong function of the amount of free gas
present in the production.
• For any given oil production rate (q1) & 1
its corresponding measured bottom
hole flowing pressure (Pwf1), theoretical
Gas flow
max. oil production rate (qo(max)) can be
Pwf / Ps

calculated using Vogel equation. Two phase

• Once flow
is established,
(qo(max))
equation can be used to estimate the
the 𝐪𝐨 𝐏 𝐏𝐰𝐟
2

bottom hole flowing pressure (P wf2 ) for = 1 − 0.2 𝐰𝐟 − 0.8

𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬
𝐪𝐨(𝐦𝐚𝐱)
any other production rates (q2).
0 1
qo/qo(max)

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• Productivity Index (P.I) in this case is NOT CONSTANT & @ any point it
is equal to the SLOPE of the TANGENT LINE to the curve @ this point.
• Mathematically, slope of the tangent line to a curve @ any point is the
DERIVATIVE of the curve @ this point.
• So, Productivity Index (P.I) is defined
as the (-ve) derivative of flow rate
(qo) with respect to
1
pressure hole
bottom i.e. (P.I) = −( qo / Pwf)
(Pwf),flowing Slope of
tangent
• Differentiating Vogel's equation with lines

Pwf / Ps
respect to the bottom hole
flowing pressure (Pwf) i.e. ( qo /
Pwf) defines the Productivity Index
(P.I).
𝛛𝐪𝐨 0.2
P. I = − = −q o(max) + 1.6 𝐏𝐰𝐟
𝛛𝐏𝐰𝐟 𝐏𝐬 𝐏𝐬𝟐
0 1
qo/qo(max)

159

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• This is a typical Vogel curves for different flow efficiencies.
• Productivity Index (P.I) increases with increasing of the flow efficiency.
Pwf / Ps

qo / qo(max) @ flow efficiency = 1

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Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• This is a summary of Darcy & Vogel work that shows the productivity
index ABOVE & BELOW the bubble point pressure (pb) respectively.
• Bubble point pressure (Pb) is @ the point where Vogel IPR deviates
from the straight-line trend.
• Above the bubble point pressure (Pb), Vogel equation did not work
since there is no free gas & the IPR relationship is a straight-line
following Darcy flow equation.

Bubble point
pressure
Bubble point pressure

161

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)

• The INFLOW performance can be improved by perforation, acidizing,
hydraulic fracturing, horizontalization …. etc.
• This is an example for the enhancement in the well IPR (max. production
rate increased from q1 to q2) after a successful stimulation job.

Pwf

Enhanced (IPR) after a

successful stimulation job

IPR-2

IPR-1

0 q
q1 q2

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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• Once the hydrocarbon passed the perforation & entered inside the
wellbore, NO more Darcy’s equation to be applied & the flow now is
only controlled by the hydraulic flow through pipes equations.
• Flow through tubing is called Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)
or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) that describes the flow from bottom
of the well to the wellhead & the ability of the tubing in the well
(outflow) to handle the production coming out from the reservoir
(inflow).
• Both IPR & VLP relate the wellbore flowing pressure to the surface
production rate BUT IPR represents what a reservoir can deliver to
the bottom hole while VLP represents what a well can deliver to surface.

• Outflow performance involves fluid

flow & the pressure
difference across each segment of
the fluid flow pathway (i.e.,
through production tubing,
wellhead & surface flow line.

163

Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• This is a summary of the overall
production flow diagram with
INFLOW & OUTFLOW systems.
• Fluid flows from reservoir
to stock tank
due to pressure gradient
(drop) within the system.

• Total pressure gradient

(drop) from the
reservoir to the separator
= sum of the individual
pressure drops
through these 4
segments:
1. Reservoir
2. Wellbore
3. Completion
4. Flowline

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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• Production flow diagram with INFLOW

►
►
& OUTFLOW systems.

But which one of these pressure

losses represents the Outflow ►
(VLP) & which is the inflow (IPR)? Horizontal flow

►►
► ►
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
►
Outflow (VLP) is ►

P3 + P4 + P7 ► ►

►
►
►
Vertical flow
Inflow (IPR) is
P = P1 + P2
P = 𝐩ഥ ‒ Pwf
►

►
►

165

Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• This is a summary of the overall pressure losses in the production
system from reservoir to surface facilities.

ΔP1 (Pressure losses P1

in the porous media)

ΔP2 (Pressure losses

P2
in the tubing string)

ΔP3 (Pressure losses

in Surface Facilities) P3

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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• In fact, calculating the pressure drop (P) @ each segment of the
fluid pathway from perforations to wellhead is serious problem.
• This is because it involves the simultaneous multiphase flow of oil, gas
& water with different flow regimes during flowing inside the tubing.

167

Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• Due to this multiphase flow with different flow regimes, it is very
difficult to find a full analytical solution to define the relationship
between pressure drop (P) across the completion components & the
flow rate inside the tubing to wellhead.
• Instead, empirical formulas & mathematical models have been
developed to be used for predicting the pressure drop (P) inside the
tubing for multiphase flow that is known as Outflow Performance
Relationship (OPR) or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP).
• Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) relationship is commonly a plot of
production rate (q) vs. flowing tubing head pressure (FTHP) shows the
outflow after considering pressure losses in the tubing (P).
• In order to obtain the realistic results, it is therefore important to define
the input parameters carefully & to select a proper model that fits with
well & reservoir fluid conditions.

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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• There are many multiphase flow correlations that are used to estimate
the Tubing Pressures Profiles or pressure losses (P) inside the
tubing then the required bottom hole tubing intake pressures @ the
given wellhead pressure which is known as the VLP curve.
• The VLP curve depends on many factors including fluid PVT properties,
well depth, tubing size, surface pressure, W.C% & GOR.
• The primary purpose of a
multiphase flow correlations is to
predict the flowing
mixture
density & the frictional pressure

Depth, ft
gradient. Tubing Pressures Profiles

• There is no universal rule to

select the best flow correlation for
a given application. The correlation
you should use is that works best
for your well conditions. Tubing Pressures, psi

169

Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• The main factor in the fluid flow through pipes that control the
pressure drop (P) @ each segment of the fluid pathway is the
FRICTION (f) which is mainly depends on the following parameters:
— Flow rate (q).
— Internal pipe diameter (D).
— Type of the flowing fluid (laminar or turbulent).
— Density of the flowing fluid ().
— Roughness of the internal surface of the pipe.
• Once the friction factors (f) is estimated, then pressure drop across the
tubing (P) can be calculated @ different flow rates.

8ρ𝑓Lq2
∆𝐏 = 𝐏 −𝐏 =
𝐢𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐥𝐞𝐭
π2D2
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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

• Now, by knowing such information, we can
establish the Vertical Lift Performance Pwf
(VLP) that describes the ability of the
tubing in the well (outflow or) to handle Outflow (OPR)
the production coming out from
the reservoir (inflow).

q
• This should ensure that the selected tubing size for production is:
1. Big enough to handle the production
2. NOT small that restrict the flow.
3. NOT more than what is normally required to handle the required
production.

171

Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

This is a typical OUTFLOW (OPR) or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) curve @ a
specific THP value.

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Outflow Performance Relationship (OPR)

This is a typical OUTFLOW (OPR) or Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) curves for
various THP scenarios.

VLP for THP = 3000 psi

Bottomhole pressure

VLP for THP = 300 psi

Liquid rate

173

Nodal Analysis
• Nodal Analysis is a common modelling tool used to DESIGN,
ANALYZE, EVALUATE & PREDICT the well performance through
pressure (P) vs. rate (q) plot.
• Nodal Analysis allows to visually assess the impact of of changes in one
component of system (separator pressure, flowline size, surface choke
sizes or tubing size) on the entire system & on well performance.
• The analysis is done by splitting the system @ the point of interest
known as the NODAL ANALYSIS POINT which is graphically represents
the upstream system response (reservoir inflow IPR) & downstream
system response (wellbore lift capacity, VLP or outflow OPR) of the
NODAL POINT.
• Let's see now how this Nodal analysis is done.

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Nodal Analysis
• Just remember that Darcy showed that if the kh 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
reservoir is producing ABOVE the bubble point 𝐪= r
pressure (Pb), then flow rate (q) is μβ Ln r e
w
directly proportional to this pressure
drawdown (P) & is inversely kh𝚫𝐏
proportional to the corresponding 𝐪= r
Pwf μβ Ln r e
bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf). w
Ps
P1
Pwf-1
P2

Pwf-2

0 q1 q2 q

175

Nodal Analysis
• For a reservoir producing BELOW the kh 𝐏𝐬 − 𝐏𝐰𝐟
bubble point pressure (Pb), the relationship 𝐪= r
is curved. μβ Ln r e
w
• So, for reservoir inflow, reducing
the bottom hole flowing pressure kh𝚫𝐏
P 𝐪= r
(Pwf) will result-in increasing of well wf μβ Ln r e
flow rate (q) & vice versa. w
Ps
P1
Drawdown (P) = Ps – Pwf
Pwf-1
Production rate (q) α Drawdown (P) P2

Production rate (q) α (1 / Pwf)

P
wf-2
Production rate (Q) α Drawdown (P) q
0
q1 q2

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Nodal Analysis
• While for the flow through tubing (Outflow Performance Relationship -
OPR), pressure loss in the tubing (P) is a direct function of the flow
rate (q), tubing specifications, fluid density & frictions.
= 8ρ𝑓Lq
2
• So, for the outflow (OPR), ∆𝐏 = 𝐏 −𝐏 2 2
πD
increasing of flowing Pwf 𝐢𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐥𝐞𝐭

pressure (Pinlet) will cause

increasing of well flow rate (q).
Ps
• Pressure losses in tubing (P) Outflow (OPR)

(P) = Pinlet – Poutlet

Pwf-1

= Pwf – THP
Pwf-2

Production rate (q) α Pinlet or (Pwf) q

0
q2 q1

177

Nodal Analysis
• When combines OUTFLOW (VLP) & INFLOW (IPR) curves in one plot of
pressure vs. rate then the intersection point between IPR & VLP curves
is called the optimum operating working point that yields the optimum
well deliverability conditions (q & Pwf) possible for this well with
completion
this system.
Pwf
• This optimum
operating
working point ensure that the
Ps
selected tubing size is suitable
enough to handle the required Outflow (OPR)
production without restricting or
System operating
Pwf-opr.

accelerating the flow.

pressure
• This "optimum rate" (qopr) is NOT Optimum
operating or
a maximum or minimum working point
rate, but it is the rate @
which this well should efficiently
produce for the tubing system 0 q
qopr.
installed.
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Nodal Analysis
• This "optimum rate" (qopr) can be improved by:
– Changing the completion size or surface chokes size.
– Or by shifting IPR curve through simulation treatment.

Pwf

Ps
Outflow (OPR)

Bigger tubing size

0 q

179

Nodal Analysis
• This figure summarizes the improvement of the "optimum rate" (qopr) can
by changing the completion size & by shifting IPR curve through
simulation treatment.

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Nodal Analysis
• The IPR changes with time due to the reservoir pressure depletion
having the same completion system used in the well.
• Maximum well deliverability (q) & static pressure (Ps) decreases with
time (t):
— (q1 & Ps1 ) @ time (t 1) Pwf
Optimum operating working
— (q2 & Ps2) @ time (t2) Ps point decline with time
— (q3 & Ps3) @ time (t3) Ps 12
P Outflow (OPR)
s3 t1
• This t2
means that the t3
optimum
operating working point changes
with time having the same Inflow (IPR)
completion system used in the well.

0 q
q3 q2 q1

181

Nodal Analysis
• This is a sensitivity runs for a well production using different completion
size with some different IPR scenarios for changing producing W.C.%.

Bigger tubing size

Higher W.C.%

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Nodal Analysis
• This is a sensitivity runs for a well if it is drilled horizontally with different
lateral distances (300, 600, 1200 & 2400 ft) & is completed with
two different tubing sizes (3 ½” & 4 ½”).
• We can see that:
• Using bigger tubing size
(4½”) allows for
more production @ the
same bottom hole
flowing pressure.
• For any tubing size, there
is a little
increase in production
by drilling a horizontal
distance from
(1200 ft) to a longer
lateral distances (2400
ft).

183

3.0

P
2.0

1.0
D
0.0
Skin

S0
-1.0

P -2.0

-3.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
qg, MMscf/d

Pressure Measurements
(SGS, PBU & MDT)
Analysis & Gas Wells
Deliverability Tests
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Depths Definitions
• Before go through the different pressure surveys, we should first know
some about different depths definitions that are used in the
measurements during pressure surveys such as:
1. Measured Depth (MD).
2. True Vertical Depth (TVD).
3. True Vertical Depth Subsea (TVDSS).
4. True Vertical Thickness (TVT).
5. True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST).

185

Depths Definitions
1. Measured Depth (MD):
• Measured Depth (MD) is the entire length along the well path (vertical or
slanted or horizontal) from the wellhead to the reservoir section.

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Depths Definitions
2. True Vertical Depth (TVD):
• True Vertical Depth (TVD) is the difference in vertical height between
the start & end points of depth (vertical distance from the wellhead to
the reservoir).

187

Depths Definitions
2. True Vertical Depth (TVD):
• For vertical wells without any deviation so the Measured Depth (MD) is
the same as the True Vertical Depth (TVD)  (MD = TVD).
• For deviated wells, Measured Depth (MD) > True Vertical Depth (TVD).
• TVD = MD * Cos (), where “” is the deviation angle of the well between
the well path & the vertical plan.

MD = TVD TVD MD

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Depths Definitions
2. True Vertical Depth (TVD):
• For a horizontal wells, the True Vertical Depths (TVD) is constant along
the horizontal section while the Measured Depth (MD) increases along
this horizontal section.

TVD

MD

189

Depths Definitions
3. True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS):
• True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS) is the vertical distance from the
Mean Sea Level (MSL) to the reservoir.
• It is equal to the difference between the True Vertical Depth (TVD) & the
Kelly Bushing (KB) elevation  (TVDSS = TVD − KB).
• Where “KB” is the Kelly Bushing elevation or the rotary table elevation
from Mean Sea Level (MSL) elevation.

Kelly

Kelly Bushing (KB)

Rotary table

Drill floor

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Depths Definitions
3. True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS):
• TVDSS Is not affected with well trajectory & deviation since it is related
to surface sea level elevation.

Sea Level Sea Level Sea Level

Horizontal well
Vertical well Deviated well

TVDSS MD TVDSS MD TVDSS
TVD TVD TVD

MD

191

Depths Definitions
4. True Vertical Thickness (TVT):
• True Vertical Thickness (TVT) is the vertical distance between the top &
bottom boundaries of a stratigraphic unit.
• TVT did not represent the real reservoir thickness.

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Depths Definitions
5. True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST):
• True Stratigraphic Thickness (TST) is the distance between the top &
bottom boundaries of a stratigraphic unit measured perpendicularly to
the dip or inclination of this stratigraphic unit.
• TST represent the real reservoir thickness.

193

Depths Definitions
• These are MD, TVD, TVDSS, TVT & TST depths summary.

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Depths Definitions
• For the any drilled well, there is a directional survey prepared by the
directional company during drilling the well that includes the following data
@ some selected depths for reference:

MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS X Y

(FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT) (M) (M)
0 0.0 0.0 0 -115 594189 2934605
– MD: measured depth, actual distance between start & end points.
– Deviation (): angle between the well path & the vertical plane.
– Azimuth: angle in the horizontal plane between well path & the North.
– TVD: true vertical depth, vertical distance between start & end points
(TVD = MD * Cos ()).
– TVDSS: is TVD but is referred to Subsea depth (TVDSS = TVD – KB).
– X & Y: location coordinates of the point in the horizontal plan.

195

Depths Definitions
JUST TO REMEMBER:
• The INCLINATION & AZIMUTH define
the coordinates of the wellbore along
its length, usually relative to the
location of the wellhead.
• The INCLINATION is the deviation of
the wellbore from the vertical.
Inclination
– Inclination is expressed in degrees. angle

• AZIMUTH is the compass direction of

a directional survey of the wellbore in Azimuth
the horizontal plane.
– Azimuth is usually specified in
degrees with respect to the
north pole (typically
measured clockwise from
north).
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Depths Definitions
• So, to calculate the True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS) for any given
Measured Depth (MD = 6059 ft) we must refer to the directional survey
data & find the nearest Forward or Backward recorded depths data &
then calculate the TVDSS as follow:
Directional survey data Nearest directional survey data
MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS X Y
(FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT) (M) (M)
1- Forward point calculation
0 0.0 0.0 0 -115 594189 2934605 MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS X Y
300 0.1 69.6 300 185 594189 2934605
500 0.1 348.3 500 385 594189 2934605
(FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT) (M) (M)
900 0.1 353.7 900 785 594189 2934605 6100 36.5 218.5 5507.4 5392.4 593828 2934147
1000 0.2 303.5 1000 885 594189 2934606
1300
1700
1.1
2.5
166.0
191.6
1300 1185 594189 2934605
1699.8 1584.8 594189 2934602
2- Backward point calculation
MD DEVI AZIMUTH TVD TVDSS X Y
2000 3.6 189.1 1999.4 1884.4 594188 2934597
2300 5.0 196.8 2298.5 2183.5 594187 2934590 (FT) (DEG) (DEG) (FT) (FT) (M) (M)
2800 11.1 208.8 2794.6 2679.6 594180 2934573 5800 38.3 219.1 5269.2 5154.2 593863 2934190
3100 17.5 210.9 3085.2 2970.2 594169 2934554
3700 31.6 217.8 3627.6 3512.6 594124 2934490
4300 39.0 221.4 4117 4002 594057 2934409
4900 40.3 222.2 4574.2 4459.2 593977 2934322
5200 40.3 221.5 4803.1 4688.1 593937 2934278
 5800 38.3 219.1 5269.2 5154.2 593863 2934190 5800 , 5154.2
6100 36.5 218.5 5507.4 5392.4 593828 2934147
 6400 36.9 217.3 5747.9 5632.9 593795 2934104
7000 35.9 216.6 6231.3 6116.3 593730 2934017 From
7900 41.0 213.1 6948.1 6833.1 593635 2933881 TVD ? −5154.2 directional
8200 41.5 212.0 7173.7 7058.7 593602 2933831 Cos(θ) = → Cos(38.3) = 38
8800 40.7 209.3 7629 7514 593542 2933728 MD 6059 − 5800 survey
9100 41.1 209.0 7855.6 7740.6 593513 2933675
9700 40.3
10000 40.4
202.6
199.5
8308.1 8193.1 593461 2933567
8536.8 8421.8 593439 2933512
TVDSS @ MD of 6059 ft is 5357 ft
10900 47.7
11000 49.4
191.8
191.7
9207.8 9092.8 593395 2933335
9273.9 9158.9 593390 2933313
6059 ? Point of interest

197

Depth Measuring Levels

• Depths measured in the pressure
surveys are the W/L measured
depths but there are different
depth measurements levels
that should be known.

• MSL: Mean Sea Level.

• AMSL / BMSL : Above / Below
Mean Sea Level.
• Seabed: is the solid surface of
the earth that lies under the water. MSL
• Water depth is the
Water depth
vertical distance between MSL &
Seabed. Seabed
• Total Depth (TD) is the deepest
point drilled in the well. TD

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Depth Measuring Levels

• Original Rotary Kelly
Bushing (ORKB) elevation or
the Original
Derrick Floor Elevation (ODFE) is
the original rig floor elevation for the
rig that drilled the well. ORKB
• New ODFE
Derrick Floor Elevation
NDFE
(NDFE) or New Rotary NRKB
Kelly Bushing (NRKB)
elevation is the rig floor
elevation for any rig used later.

MSL
Kelly
Water depth
Kelly bushing Seabed
Rotary table
TD
Drill floor

199

Depth Measuring Levels

• Wireline Zero Level (WZL) @ X-tree
Cap level Below Original
Derrick Floor (BODF) is the
depth @ which start record depth &
measurements. ORKB
ODFE

NDFE
NRKB
• Sometimes this (WZL) is referred to X-tree Cap
the Tubing Head Spool (T.H.S) or X-tree
T.H.F
5 – 8 ft
MSL
the Tubing Head Flange (T.H.F).
Water depth
Seabed

TD

200

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Depth Measuring Levels

• This is a real example with different elevations.
115
50
171
ORKB
ODFE

NDFE
NRKB
X-treeCap
X-tree 5 – 8 ft
581 466 531
T.H.F
MSL
For W/L depth (581 ft) measured @
ODFE. Water depth
It equals to (466 = 581 – 115) if it Seabed
is measured from MSL.
It equals to (531 = 581 – 50) if it TD
is measured from X-tree cap.
201

Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies

• Before go through the different pressure surveys, we should first know
some about pressure gauge characteristics & terminologies such as:
1. Gauge Accuracy.
2. Gauge Drift.
3. Gauge Resolution.
4. Gauge Recording Capacity.
5. Gauge Sampling Rate.

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Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies

1. Gauge Accuracy:
• Gauge accuracy is defined as a
deviation in readings between
the real calibrated pressure in the
lab (Actual Load) & the
recorded pressure by the
gauge @ a given
temperature.

• Accurate gauges such as quartz gauge has the min. deviation.

• There is an acceptable limit for the gauge accuracy as shown in the
gauge certificate above which the gauge must not be used in
the pressure surveys.

203

Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies

2. Gauge Drift:
• Gauge drifting refers to the ability of pressure gauge to retain its
measuring stability over a long period of time without any declining
in the recorded pressure data away from the real calibrated pressure in
the lab (Actual Load).
• Of course, gauges with smaller drifts are preferred.
Pressure, psi

Real calibrated pressure

Low drift

High drift

Time, weeks

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Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies

3. Gauge Resolution:
• Resolution of the gauge is referring to the ability of the gauge to detect &
sense with any small changes or variation in the recorded pressure data
during the test.
• By another words, it is the minimum pressure change that a gauge can
detect & sense.
• The higher the resolution, the smaller pressure changes can be better
detected.
Pressure

1 2 3 4 7 8 9 10 11
5
Time6
205

Pressure Gauge Characteristics & Terminologies

4. Gauge Recording Capacity:
• Gauge recording capacity is referring to how many data points that the
gauge can record & store in its memory during the survey.
• So, when designing a pressure survey, this number should be considered
to avoid any lost of the test periods especially @ late time that
describes the reservoir boundaries.

5. Gauge Sampling Rate:

• Gauge sampling rate refers to how many pressure points to be
recorded in a minute during the pressure survey.
• We design the gauge sampling rate & program the gauge prior to RIH to
follow this design during the survey.
• This design should consider the battery life since it consumes the battery
life (higher sampling rate, less battery life).

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Pressure Surveys
• The main objective of the pressure surveys is to measure the current
reservoir pressure & to monitor its change with time to
define the depletion rate which in turns help to identify the areas
that need production control & that need injection support /
redistribution.
• Reservoir pressure measurements monitoring can be done using one of
the following methods:
– Downhole Permeant Gauges (DHPG) with
Surface Readout (SRO) monitoring.
– @ some timelapse periods using surface
units with downhole gauges such as:
o Slickline W/L unit with memory gauges
such as used in the static pressure
gradient survey & pressure buildup (PBU)
survey.
o Electrical W/L unit with gauges & Surface
ReadOut (SRO) monitoring such
as used in the MDT.
207

Pressure Surveys
• There are many pressure surveys are used to monitor reservoir pressure
such as:
1. Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) survey.
2. Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey followed by the Pressure Transient
Analysis (PTA).
3. Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT).
4. Gas Wells Deliverability Tests (flow after flow (FAF), isochronal &
modified isochronal tests).

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1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) survey is one of the most applicable
easy pressure survey since it does not require any complexity or
special equipment.
• Just use downhole memory gauges & close the well for enough time
prior to the survey. Pressure

• The objectives of this survey is to:

►
Measure current bottom hole static pressure.
►
Define the fluids types inside the wellbore which

TVD Depth
are in equilibrium condition due to shut-in
the well for enough time prior to the survey.
►
Locate the contacts between the different fluids
inside the wellbore.
• These contacts should be the same as that inside
the reservoir if the shut-in period was long enough
for fluids stabilization.

209

1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• In this survey, the well is closed enough time (1 – 2 days) prior to RIH
with the memory gauges to downhole to ensure the stabilization for
both bottom hole static pressure & fluids contacts.
• Then RIH with the memory gauges to the possible deepest point & set or
hang the gauges for some few hours @ this depth to measure the bottom
hole static pressure .
• Then start POOH with the memory gauges.
• During POOH do the gradient survey by stopping the memory gauges @
some depth stations (normally 5 – 10 stations from the deepest
point to the well head) for approximately 5 – 10 mins for each stop to read
the corresponding pressures @ these depths.
• Then retrieve the memory gauges out of the well & open the well for
production again.
• For quick QAQC on the memory gauge measurements just compare the
recorded Tubing Head Pressure (THP) by the memory gauge with
that measured by the surface pressure gauge located on top of the X-
tree cap prior to the survey.

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1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• This is a summary of the static pressure gradient survey.
Static Grd. Stops

RIH Static
Pressure

Pressure

Gradient survey with station stops

(usually 5 – 10 mins for each stop)
09:00:00 10:00:00 11:00:00 12:00:00

Date & Time

Date Time Event
24 Feb. 2013 08:27:00 Ambient readings (well was closed on 25 Apr. 2000 @ 13:05:00)
24 Feb. 2013 08:28:15 Gauges in lubricator
24 Feb. 2013 10:20:04 Set gauges in R-nipple @ 10527 ft W.L
24 Feb. 2013 12:46:25 Start POOH with the gauges
24 Feb. 2013 12:47:55 Stop @ 10300 ft W.L depth
24 Feb. 2013 12:58:45 Stop @ 10000 ft W.L depth This is the pressure to compare
24 Feb. 2013 13:11:35 Stop @ 9000 ft W.L depth with that measured by the surface
pressure gauge located on top of
24 Feb. 2013 00:35:22 Stop @ 1000 ft W.L depth the X-tree cap prior to the survey.
24 Feb. 2013 00:50:00 Gauge in lubricator.

211

1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• This is a summary of the data file for a static gradient survey.
• The given depths in the pressure surveys are the W/L measured depths
(MD) @ Wireline Zero Level (WZL) @ X-tree cap.
• Summarize the pressure data in a table like this.
Gauge Data

Depth Pressure Temprature

W.Z.L. psia FO
10527 3731.8 212.9

10300 3719.4 212.1

10000 3700.3 210.3

9000 3637.5 204.3

8000 3577.3 198.2

6000 3451.3 186.6

4000 3319.3 172.1

2000 3160.9 152.0

0 2997.5 95.8

212

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1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• But we must use the True Vertical Depth SubSea (TVDSS) data in the
pressure gradient calculations.
TVDSS 𝚫𝐏
𝚫𝐓𝐕𝐃
𝚫𝐓
𝚫𝐓𝐕𝐃
MD 𝐓𝐕𝐃𝐒𝐒 = 𝐓𝐕𝐃 − 𝐎𝐃𝐅𝐄

Gauge Data Calculated TVD data Pressure Temp.

Grd. Grd.
Depth Depth Pressure Temprature TVD TVDSS

W.Z.L. ODFE psia F O ft ft psi/ft FO / 100 ft

10527 10586 3731.8 212.9 9024 8900 0.066 0.37

10300 10359 3719.4 212.1 8835 8711 0.075 0.74

10000 10059 3700.3 210.3 8581 8457 0.077 0.73

9000 9059 3637.5 204.3 7771 7647 0.076 0.77

8000 8059 3577.3 198.2 6980 6856 0.085 0.78

6000 6059 3451.3 186.6 5499 5375 0.086 0.95

4000 4059 3319.3 172.1 3966 3842 0.083 1.05

2000 2059 3160.9 152.0 2057 1933 0.082 2.81

0 59 2997.5 95.8 59 -65

213

1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

Pressure, psia Temprature, FO

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 100 200 300

Note that @ static conditions:
0

BHP = WHP + (Grd. * TVDss)

1000
WHP = 2997 psi
3736 = 2997 + (0.083 * 8900)
2000

3000

4000
TVD, ft

5000

6000
Avg. gradient Temp. grd.
= 0.083 psi/ft = 0.87 Fo/ft

7000

8000 BHP = 3736 psi BHT = 213 Fo

9000

214

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1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

• Let’s consider a data for a well with 3 phase fluids existing in the wellbore.
• In this case there will be fluid Pressure, psi
0 1000 3000
levels @ certain depths in the 0
2000
wellbore depends mainly on the
Gas
percentage of each phase. 1000

GOC @ 1800 Ft TVDss

• Current WHP = 675 psi. 2000

• Extrapolated oil gradient line 3000

gives (WHP = 200 psi) Oil

Depth, ft (TVDss)
4000
that represents the case
if the well is only filled with oil 5000 OWC @ 5200 Ft TVDss
from the total depth to surface. Depth, ft Pressure Grd.
TVD.SS psig psi/ft
6000
• Extrapolated
675

water 1804
3186
709
1134
0.02
0.31

gradient
line gives (WHP = 0) that
4522 1540 0.30
7000 5199 1773 0.34
5865 2094 0.48 Water
represents the case if the well is 6596
6962
7338
2444
2620
2799
0.48
0.48
0.48
8000
only filled with water from total 7695
8028
2970
3129
0.48
0.48
8326 3271 0.48
depth to surface. 9000
8558 3382 0.48

215

1− Static Pressure Gradient (SPG) Survey

Finally, compare these calculated
pressure gradients with the fluids Pressure, psi
specific gravities measured in the 0 1000 2000 3000
0
Lab (should be the same).
1000 Gas
Gas
GOC @ 1800 Ft TVDss
2000

Oil 3000

Oil
Depth, ft (TVDss)

4000

5000 OWC @ 5200 Ft TVDss

6000

Water
7000
Water

8000

9000

216

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2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• Pressure Build-up (PBU) is the continuous measurement of the shut-in
bottomhole pressures (Pws) that is acquired after produced the well with a
constant rate (q) for a period of production time (tp), then shut-in the
well for the buildup period (t).
• The test is called Pressure Buildup test (PBU) in OIL or GAS producing
wells or Pressure Falloff test (PFO) in WATER or GAS injection wells.
• PBU is another type of the pressure surveys to know the current static
reservoir pressure & to monitor its change with time in addition to that,
analysis of the pressure buildup data will give some more information
about reservoir properties, productivity, formation damage, reservoir size
& geometry.

217

2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• After shut-in, reservoir pressure will increases & propagate around the
wellbore as waves similar to that in case of dropping a stone or water
drop in the water.

• Presence of any barriers inside

the reservoir such as faults will
affect these pressure
waves propagation
inside the reservoir.

218

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2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• This increase in the reservoir pressure after the shut-in is measured as
a function of time.
• Rate of the pressure change with time (P) is a strong function of flow
rate (q), formation properties, i.e., permeability (k), skin (S)
& boundary conditions (re) as indicated from Darcy’ law.

kh ΔP re
𝐪= re 𝐪μβ Ln r + 𝑆
w
μβ Ln r + 𝑆 ΔP =
w kh

219

2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• Analysis of the pressure change with time during the shut-in buildup
period will give valuable information such as:
►
Ability of the reservoir to deliver its fluids (flow capacity “kh”,
productivity index “P.I” & the skin effect factor “S”).
►
Reservoir properties (permeability, presence of fractures, dual
porosity/permeability systems, lateral heterogeneity…..
etc.).
►
Reservoir geometry (reservoir drainage area) & the boundary
configuration (faults, constant pressure boundaries ….
etc.).
• By analyzing this information, we can end up with a suitable remedial
action if needed such as:
– Rigless stimulation or perforation if formation damage is identified &
even, we may need a rig for horizontalization (for tight
zones) or hydraulic fracturing (for low productivity with potential zones).
– Identify the areas that requires production control & that need more
injection support or injection redistribution.

220

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2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

An outline program for the PBU survey includes:
►
Close the well from wing valve.
►
R/U wireline unit & the Lubricator, test all before open the well.
►
RIH with the 2 memory gauges (one is a backup for the other) & set
inside the completion.
►
Keep the well closed for 1 – 2 days prior to the test for stabilization
without any disturbance (optional).
►
Open the well for Flow After Flow (FAF) test (usually @ 3 - 5 different
choke sizes) in increasing mode (20%, 40%, 60% , 80% & 100%)
with stabilized production rate to avoid any sudden disturbance for
the stabilized reservoir regime around the well.
►
After completing the flow periods, shut-in the well for many days (3 – 10
days) for the final build up period depending on reservoir permeability.
►
Start POOH with the memory gauges & perform static gradient survey
station stops (usually 5 – 10 mins for each stop) @ different depths
to determine the fluid types & the contacts in the wellbore.

221

2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• In general, PBU test consists of:
– Flowing the well @ a constant flow rate for a period of time (Tp).
► Ensure to flow with a constant rate(s) for some period (Tp) that
cause the reservoir to be under a steady state
conditions & to record the bottom hole flowing
pressure (Pwf) during this stabilized period of production.

– Shut-in the well @ time (∆t = 0).

►
Shut-in the well for the final build up period (in case of oil
producer) or fall off test (in case of water injection) to
record the bottom hole shut-in pressure (Pws).

– Measuring bottom hole pressure increases with shut-in time (∆t).

►
Study the change in the pressure buildup rate for every time
intervals (slope) that is being affected with the
reservoir & fluid properties and geometry.

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2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• This is a typical PBU test.
Pws-x
Flowing drawdown periods Pws1
Pre-test @ constant rates (q) Shut-in Buildup period
shut-in (Tp) (t)
period
Pressure

RIH
Pwf @ t = 0 POOH & Static grd. survey

pre-test survey production #1 build-up #1 (153.8 hr - 110731 data points)

Rate

t1 tx

013 05/04/2013 08/04/2013 11/04/2013 14/04/2013 17/04/2013

Date & Time

q : constant production rate Pwf : bottom hole flowing pressure
Tp : production time prior to shut-in Pws : bottom hole shut in pressure

223

2− Pressure Buildup (PBU) survey

• Declining in the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) during the flowing
(drawdown) period is an indication of the reservoir volume
& extension as follow:
1. If it is sharply declines & continue declining during the drawdown
period, so it is a limited reservoir which may be a closed reservoir with
small volume. During the buildup, pressures will raise quickly to the
stabilization point.
Flow rate (q), bpd

(q) is constant

2. But if it is almost stable or

Tp
slightly declines, so the Time, hrs
reservoir is relatively huge Production Build up
or may be due to strong
Bottom hole pressure, psi

pressure support from an

aquifer. During the buildup, (2)

pressures will take longer (1) Pwf-2

time to stabilize. Pwf-1

Pwf Pws
Time, hrs

224

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA) is the analysis of the shut-in
bottomhole pressure data acquired in the Pressure Build-up (PBU) survey.
• This is Horner’s equation which is the fundamental of the well test
analysis for an infinite-acting reservoir.

q   T p   t 
P w s  Pi  1 6 2 . 6 k h  log   t 
  
Pws : Shut-in bottom-hole pressure (psi) during the buildup period recorded @ each
elapsed time (t)
Pi : Current stabilized static reservoir pressure (psi), NOT the initial reservoir pressure.
q : Stabilized flow rate prior to shut-in period (stb/d)
= Cum. production during the test flow period / Tp
µ : Flowing fluid viscosity (cp)  : Formation volume
factor (rb/stb)
k : Effective formation permeability to the flowing fluid  keff = kabs * krel
h : all net pay thickness (ft) in hydraulic communication with the wellbore,
NOT
only the perforated intervals.
Tp : Stabilized production time (hrs). t : Elapsed time since
shut-in (hrs)

225

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• In fact, Horner’s equation is a straight-line equation with a constant
slope (m) & intersect with Y-axis @ value of (a).

This is Horner
Pws  Pi  162.6 q   Tp   t  time (hrs)
log 
kh    t 


Y = a‒ Y
mX a
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝒎= m
𝑘ℎ
X
• (t) in Horner’ equation is the cum. elapsed time (hrs) @ each time step
for each recorded value of (Pws) since shut-in the well for buildup.
• ((Tp + t) / t) in Horner’ equation is called Horner time (hrs).
• When (t) INCREASE, Horner time ((Tp + t) / t) DECREASE.

226

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• But how (m) is constant while both
(o) & (o) change with pressure?
• This is because from fluid PVT
analysis we have:
2.0

– Above bubble point pressure (Pb), 1.8

o
decreasing of reservoir 1.6 Pb

pressure with time causes 1.4

(o) to increase & 1.2
(o) to decrease till the (Pb). 1.0
1.1

– Below bubble point pressure (Pb), 0.9 o

(o) start decreasing & (o)
0.7
start increasing.
• So, multiplying of almost equal 0.5
Pb

opposite slopes ( ) = constant 0.3

0 2000 4000 6000
Pressure, psig

227

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Horner work:
• This is typically PBU test & this is the initial shut-in bottom hole
pressure (Pws) value immediately @ the time (t = 0) when the well was
closed for PBU.
• This bottom hole pressure (Pws) value is used to calculate the (P) values
@ any time (tx)  (P = Pws-@ tx − Pws).
Pressure

2310

2290

2270

2250 Pws

4000
Rate

2000
Production Build up
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Elapsed time, hrs

228

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Horner work:
• This is a summary for the data collected
during PBU test. Time t PWS P
hrs hrs psi psi
• t1, t2, t3, …… , tn-1, tn are the elapsed
t1 t 1 - t1
times since shut-in (hrs). Pws-1 Pws-1 - Pws

t2 t 2 - t1
• Pws-1, Pws-2, Pws-3, …… , Pws-n-1, Pws-n are Pws-2 Pws-2 - Pws

the bottom hole shut-in t3 t 3 - t1 Pws-3 Pws-3 - Pws

pressures recorded @ each elapsed ----- ----- ----- -----
time.
----- ----- ----- -----
• (Pws) is the INITIAL shut-in pressure
immediately after close the well tn-1 tn-1 - t1 Pws-n-1 Pws-n-1 - Pws
which is the same as the FINAL tn t n - t1 Pws-n
bottom hole flowing pressure Pws-n - Pws
directly before shut- in the well.
• Horner plotted the shut-in pressures (Pws) recorded @ the elapsed
times (t) on Y-axis vs. Horner time ((Tp + t) / t) on X-axis.

229

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• This is Horner work presented on a normal Cartesian plot.
• Results will give a meaningless plot because Horner’s equation is a
logarithmic equation so it should be plotted on a Semi-Log plot.
5100

4900

4700
PwsP , , psi

4500
psi

4300
ws

4100

3900

3700

3500
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

(T + t) / t
(Tp + t)/t
p

230

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• This is typically a Horner plot on a Semi-Log paper where Horner time
((Tp + t) / t) is on X-axis & the shut-in pressures recorded @ the
elapsed times (t) is on Y-axis.
5000
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝒎=
4800 𝑘ℎ

4600

Curved shape is due to wellbore

, psi

Straight line with storage (after production effect)

psi

4400
constant slope (m) which is proportional to well fluid
Pws,
Pws

4200 until end of the test properties & well depth

4000

3800 Horner time INCREASES while (t)

DECREASES in this direction
3600
1 10 100 10000 100000
(T
1000
+ t) / t
(Tp +p t)/t

231

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• Horner showed that the slope (m) should be measured @ the straight-line
portion of the relationship.
– The slope (m) is calculated per logarithmic cycle, i.e. (1 to 10, 10 to
100, 100 to 1000 … etc.) & this is because the relationship
between the shut-in pressures & the Horner time is a logarithmic
relationship.
– The slope (m) is measured directly from Horner plot as difference
between any successive two pressure readings @ any logarithmic cycle
for Horner time, i.e. (pressure @ Horner time of (10) – pressure @ Horner
time of (1) or pressure @ Horner time of (100) – pressure @ Horner time
of (10) … etc. considering that the cycle is related to the
straight-line portion of the relationship.
– This is because the difference between any two successive Horner time
values
 ForofLog logarithmic
thecycle#1 cycle is alwaysLog(1)
 Log(10) equal to (1).= (1 – 0) = 1
– Log(10) = (2 – 1) = 1
 For Log cycle#2  Log(100) Log(100) = (3 – 2) = 1
–
232  For Log cycle#3  Log(1000) –

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• Horner showed that:
– When the shut-in time (t) is too long compared to the production time (Tp)
during the flowing period (theoretically to infinity time, i.e., t = ∞) then ((Tp
+ t) ≈ t) then value of Horner time @ the end of the buildup is ((Tp + t) /
t) = (1)  Log (1) = (0).

q   T p   t 
P w s  Pi  1 6 2 . 6 k h  log   t 
  
– That mean the term Log ((Tp + t) / t) in Horner’s equation is ZERO &
the equation become  Pws = Pi
– So, extrapolation of Horner time to Horner time = ((Tp + t) / t)) = (1)
will intersect with Y-axis @ the estimated current static
reservoir pressure (P*) (not the initial reservoir pressure during the
discovery).
– This estimated extrapolated (P*) is useful to estimate the current
static reservoir pressure in low permeability reservoirs that
requires long shut-in time for stabilization that cause lost of
production.
233

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

This is how the slope (m) & the extrapolated (P*) are estimated from Horner plot
where it should belong to the straight-line portion of the relationship.

5100
P* = 4980 psi
4900

4780
4700

4580
4500

4380
PwPs , ,
w s

ppsisi

4300

m = 4980 – 4780 = 200 psi/cycle

4100

m = 4780 – 4580 = 200 psi/cycle

3900
m = 4580 – 4380 = 200 psi/cycle
3700

3500
1 10 100 1000 10000
(T + t) / t
(T +pt)/t
p

234

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• Another presentation of the pressure buildup data is the Semi-Log plot
where instead of using Horner time ((Tp + t) / t), we plot the logarithmic
value of elapsed time {Log (t)} on X-axis vs. the shut-in pressures (Pws)
recorded @ elapsed times (t) on Y-axis that give a mirror image plot of
Horner plot.
5100

4
499000
5
4477000

5
Boundary
Effect
PwsP , , psi

4500

4300
ws
psi

4100

3900 m = 4905 – 4705 = 200 psi/cycle

3700 (t) INCREASES in this direction
while Horner time DECREASES
3500
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 100.000
10.000
Elapsed time (t), hrs
Elapsed times (t), hrs
235

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

• Another presentation of the data is the Log-Log plot, in this case we
plot on a log-log plot the elapsed time (t) on X-axis vs. the change in
the down hole shut-in pressure (Pws) on Y-axis.
• This plot helps to estimate the time @ which wellbore storage effect due
to borehole fluids compressibility stop & the reservoir effect start.
10000

Line with unity Time t P

PWS
slope,  = 45o hrs hrs psi psi

1 000
t1 t1 - t1
Pws-1 Pws-1 - Pws
P , psi
PwsP ,- psi

t2 t2 - t1
wf

Pws-2 Pws-2 - Pws

ws

100 t3 t3 - t1
Pws-3 Pws-3 - Pws

10
Time @ which wellbore ----- ----- ----- -----
storage ended
tn-1 tn-1 - t1 Pws-n-1 Pws-n-1 - Pws
tn tn - t1
Pws-n Pws-n - Pws
1
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000

Elapsed times
t, hrs
(t), hrs
236

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Horner & Semi-Log plots are divided into 3 main regions:
I. ETR (Early Time Region).
II. MTR (Middle Time Region).
III. LTR (Late Time Region).

237

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Horner & Semi-Log plots are divided into 3 main regions:
• First region (I) − Early Time Region Horner plot
(ETR): is dominated by the wellbore
effect. II
►
Analysis for this period give the I
skin and the wellbore storage.
• Second region (II) − Middle Time
Region (MTR): is the
transient region inside the Semi-log plot
reservoir which is known
as Middle part & mainly II
describes
period the radial the
inside flow regime
reservoir I
(represented by the straight line on
Horner or semi-log plots).
►
Analysis for this region mainly
gives an estimation
value of (k).

238

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Horner & Semi-Log plots are divided into 3 main regions:
• Third region (III) − Late Time Horner plot
Region (LTR): is the reservoir III
boundaries effect.
►
This late time region begins when
the radius of drainage (rd)
has reached the
boundaries.
►
Analysis for this region give some Semi-log plot
III
imagination about the
boundary conditions, is it a
fault, constant
pressure boundary, if there is
some lateral change in
the reservoir
properties ... etc.

239

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Permeability (k) estimation from Horner analysis:
• It is known from Darcy’s equation that the relationship between flow rate
(q), pressure drawdown (P), permeability (k) & reservoir thickness (h) is
given by:

0.00708 𝒌𝒉
𝒒= 𝑷𝒘𝒔 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇
𝒓
𝝁𝜷 𝐿𝑛 𝒓 𝒆
𝒘

• So, the permeability (k) can be calculated from Darcy’s equation using the
pressure drawdown (P) during the PBU @ flow rate (q) by this equation:

𝒓𝒆
𝒒𝝁𝜷 𝐿𝑛 𝒓
𝒘
𝒌=
0.00708 𝒉
𝑷𝒘𝒔 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇

240

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Permeability (k) estimation from Horner analysis:
• From Horner analysis & based on this
q   Tp   t  
equation, slope (m) of the straight-line Pws  Pi  162.6 kh log t 

portion of the relationship is given by:
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝒎= Y = a ‒ mX
𝑘ℎ 5100

4900
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝒎=
4700 𝑘ℎ
162.6 𝑞𝜇𝛽
𝑘ℎ = 4500
Pws, psi

𝒎 4300

kh
4100

Flow 3900

3700

capacity or 3500
1 10 100 1000 10000
reservoir conductivity. (T p + t)/t

241 h  Storage capacity

(storativity).

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Skin factor (S) is a DIMENSIONLESS quantity
describes the damage or enhancement
which is created due to either a reduction or
an increase in the permeability of the skin
zone around the wellbore.
• This skin zone can extend from a few inches
to several feet away from the wellbore to
inside the reservoir.
• Thus, the permeability nearby the wellbore is always different than that
is away from the wellbore where the formation has not been
affected by drilling fluid invasion or stimulation.
• Skin could be caused by several reasons.
• The common is skin due to damage that causes more pressure drop
(Pskin) around the wellbore that in turns decrease the bottom hole
flowing pressure (Pwf) and hence well productivity is affected.

242

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• In fact, skin effect is not only attributed to formation damage but all the
near-wellbore conditions that deviate from the homogeneous radial flow.
• Total skin factor (S) that is calculated from PBU analysis is also known as
effective or apparent skin which is a sum of several skin components.

ℎ
𝑆 =
ℎ𝑤 𝑆𝑑 + 𝑆𝑝𝑝 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 + 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 + 𝑆2−𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠

Zw

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Sw %

Kro Krw

Skin due to Skin due to partial Skin due to

damage or penetration (flow Skin due to inclination Skin due to 2
turbulence flow
stimulation convergence) of the deviated wells phase flow
(in gas wells)

243

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:

ℎ
𝑆 =
ℎ𝑤 𝑆𝑑 + 𝑆𝑝𝑝 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐 + 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 + 𝑆2−𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 Skin


• These skin components may be either (-ve) or (+ve)

based on nature of the skin. − 0 +
S : total skin factor of the system
Sd : skin due to damage or stimulation
h : total zone thickness
hw : partial perforated zone thickness
: skin due to partial penetration (flow convergence)
Spp
: skin due to inclination of the deviated wells
Sinc : pseudo skin due to turbulence (in gas wells)
S2-phases : skin due to two phases flow
Sturb
244

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• But why do we always say that skin is good when
it is (-ve) value & it is bad when it is (+ve) value?

• The answer is from Darcy equation. 0.00708 𝒌𝒙𝒉 𝑷𝒘𝒔 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇

𝒒𝒙 = 𝒓𝒆
𝝁𝒙𝜷𝒙 𝐿𝑛 𝒓 + 𝑺
𝒘
Mathematically:
• When (S) is (-ve), the denominator decreases & the value of (qx)
increases such as in case of enhancement of production by stimulation.
• When (S) is (+ve), the denominator increases & the value of (qx)
decreases such as in case of reduction of permeability around
the wellbore due to damage during drilling by mud invasion.
• When (S) is (0), the denominator is not affected & the value of (qx)
stabilizes such as if there is no alternation in the permeability
around the wellbore.

245

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• The common skin is the skin due to damage that causes more pressure
drop (Pskin) occurs within the altered (damaged) region around the
wellbore that in turns decrease the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) &
hence well productivity is affected.
Pressure Pwf-ideal (without skin)
Pr
(Static reservoir
pressure)

Wellbore

Damaged kskin (Pressure drop across the Skin)

Pskin
zone
Undamaged
zone (k)
Radius (r)
Pwf-actual (with skin)
246

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• The altered region around the wellbore affecting the well radius that act
with the reservoir with different apparent well radius than what it is
actually has (higher in case of stimulation & lower in case of damage).

Altered Non-
region Altered
region

247

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Skin factor (S) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Horner analysis for the pressure build up data gave an estimation for the
total skin factor (S) which is calculated from this equation.

𝐒 = 1.151 𝐏𝟏𝐡𝐫 − Pwf − Log k ro + 3.23

w
m ∅ uo Ct r 2

• P1hr is the bottom hole static pressure after (1) hour of shut-in the well for
the build up (psia). 5000

• In Horner plot, it is the shut-in P1hr 4800

pressure @ time "t = 1 hr"

equivalent to "Log (T p+ 1)" on P 1hr4600

4400
Pws, psi

Horner time. 4200

• It should be measured @ the

Log (Tp +1)
4000

straight-line portion or the 3800

extrapolated straight line in 3600

the relationship on the 1 10 100

(Tp + t)/t
1000 10000 100000

plot.
248

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis:
• WellBore Storage (WBS) effect occur immediately after shut-in the well
which refers to how long the effect of shut-in the well from the surface for
the pressure build-up test will continue compressing the existing
fluids in the wellbore before reaching stabilization @ which there
is no more reservoir fluids feed into the wellbore.
• WellBore Storage (WBS) effect is dominated by wellbore fluids type &
their compressibilities, tubing size & depth so it can be minimized by
using the downhole shut-in tool.
• WellBore Storage (WBS) is calculated from this equation.

144𝐴𝑤𝑏 = 25.65 𝐴
𝑤𝑏  bbl/psi
𝐶𝑠 =
5.615𝜌 𝑤𝑏 𝜌𝑤𝑏

h: fluid level height, ft

Awb: wellbore area, ft2 wb: wellbore fluid density, lbm/ft3

249

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Flow inside the wellbore during the WellBore Storage period is mainly
dominated by the compressibility of the existing fluids in the wellbore.
• From the compressibility law we have:
Δ𝑉 𝑞Δ𝑡 𝑞
→ → Δ𝑃 = Δ𝑡
1 1 𝐶
𝐶= 𝐶= 𝑉
• This can
𝑉 be written in the logarithmic𝑉form as:
Δ𝑃 Δ𝑃
q
Log ΔP = Log + Log Δt
VC

Y = a + mX
• This is a straight-line equation with slope (m = 1   = 45o) &
intersects with Y−axis @ value of (a = q / VC).

250

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Wellbore Storage (Cs) estimation from Horner analysis:
• So, plotting the change in the down hole shut-in pressure (Pws) vs. the
elapsed time (t) on Log-Log plot will result-in a straight-line
relationship with slope (m = 1   = 45o) during the WellBore Storage
(WBS)
• Start period.
deviation of 10000

this
relationship rather than the
Line with unity slope,  =45
o

straight line (nonlinear)

reflect that the storage 1000
now is ended & the build
up due to the reservoir 100
Pws, psi Time when wellbore
effect started & the storage ends
pressure waves are now
propagating inside the 10
a  Log q 
 V C 
reservoir to reflect
reservoir response for the 1
pressure buildup. the 0.001 0.010 0.100
1.000
10.000 100.000

t, hrs

251

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Drainage radius (rd) refers to the Pressure Profile

distance @ any certain time (t) Pe

that the transient effects
caused by these pressure waves q
propagation will travel
inside the reservoir. Pwf
rw rd
• Well drainage area is the area that is
drained by a well production. re
Distance
• If several wells drain the reservoir,
each well has its own drainage
area. rd

• For the production best practice,

reservoir engineer should ensure that rd
there will be no interference
between the drainage areas for
the adjacent producing wells.
252

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis:
• Once the disturbance occurs by changing the
production rate or shut-in the well, the
transient effect caused by pressure waves
propagation will move from time to
time inside the reservoir (r).
• The animation below illustrate the idea of pressure
waves propagation with time (t) & distance (r).
@ the same distance (r) @ the same time (t)

t = 100 hrs
t = 10 hrs
Pressure

Pressure
t = 1 hr

t = 0.1 hrs

t=0

Time (t), hrs Distance (r), ft

253

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis:
• In fact, drainage radius (rd) is NOT a rd for low (k)
constant number around the wellbore.
• BUT it varies from direction to another rd
direction around the wellbore based on
the reservoir properties in that specific
direction & the overall reservoir
rd for high (k)
heterogeneity.
• Drainage radius (rd) is a function of rock & fluid properties & the shut-in
time (t) to reach a specific distance in the reservoir away from wellbore.
– Increasing porosity (), viscosity (), or total compressibility (Ct)
increases the time required to reach a given drainage radius (rd).
– Increasing permeability (k) decreases the time required to reach a
given drainage radius (rd).
– Changing the rate will change only the drawdown (P = Ps - Pwf) but
has NO effect on the drainage radius (rd).
254

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Drainage Radius (rd) estimation from Horner analysis:
• The most common definition for equivalent
drainage radius (rd) @ any given time (tx) is 𝒌 𝒕𝑥
given by this equation: 𝒓𝑑 =
𝟗𝟒𝟖 ∅𝝁𝑪𝑡
rd : drainage radius (rd) reached by the pressure waves after shut-in the well during
the build up test @ any given shut-in time (tx), ft
k : permeability in the area around the well bore and is dominated by the
drainage radius (rd), md
tx : build-up time till disturbance by the pressure buildup waves end, hrs.
 : average porosity around the well bore within the drainage radius (rd)
 : flowing fluid viscosity, cp
Ct : total compressibility = CoSo + CwSw + CgSg + Cf , psi-1
Co, Cw, Cg & Cf : oil, water, gas and formation compressibility respectively
So, Sw & Sg : oil, water and gas saturations respectively

255

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• In the previous analysis we knew how to estimate the reservoir pressure
& the near wellbore conditions (skin & permeability).
• But until now we do not know anything about the reservoir
configurations & the boundary conditions.
• With time, it was not enough for the engineers to just acquire the data &
then plot it to know some information around the well, but the level
of knowledge increased & reached beyond what the data showed
on simple plots.
• The new approach go inside the data itself & studied the change in
pressure change from time step to another time step that is
known as a derivative & to relates this change mathematically &
physically with reservoir geometry.
• Remember pressure difference (P) is that between any pressure (Pwsx)
@ any time (tx) & the pressure directly prior to shut-in the well
(Pws).

256

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Difference (): is the change between two values.
∆𝑥 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

• Derivative (𝜕): is the rate of

𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
change between two 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑖𝑚
𝑥→∞ Δ𝑥
values.

• Rate of change of a function

f(x) with respect to the changes 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 → 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0
in one of its variable (x) can be.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 → 𝑓′(𝑥) = 1

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥𝑛−1

257

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• To apply this for the reservoir, (x) is time (t) & f(x) is the pressure (P).

• Pressure Difference (P)  is the normal mathematical difference

between two values P = P2 – P1  Pws – Pwf
• Pressure Derivative (𝜕P)  is the change of pressure with respect to
the natural logarithm of time.
P(t + Δt) −Δt
t→∞ P(t) P@ (t+Δt) − P@Δt(t) P@ (t2) − P@t (t1−
) t
𝛛𝐏 = P′(t) = Lim = = 2 1
𝑷 − 𝑷1 Δ𝑷
𝜕𝑷 = 2 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡
• The derivative equals the pressure derivative with respect to time
multiplied by the elapsed time (t) since the beginning of the period.
𝜕𝑷 𝜕𝑷
Δ𝑷 =
′
𝜕𝐿𝑛 𝜕𝑷
Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑡
258 =𝑡
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• As mentioned earlier that the Log-Log analysis plot is a graphical
representation plot of the pressure difference (Px = Pws-x – Pws) vs. the
elapsed time (t) on a log-log plot.
• As in the Log-Log analysis, the pressure derivative is also plotted on a
Log-Log plot vs. (t).

P
Pressure, psi

𝜕P
Time, hrs

259

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• In mathematics, the derivative @ any point on the curve is the slope of
the tangent to the curve @ this point.
• Applying this concept on the pressure-time relationship, so we can
calculate the derivative @ any point on the (P – t) relationship by
calculating the slope of the tangent line to the curve @ this point.
• Slope = Tan ()
Shut-in pressure

0 100 200 300

 time

260

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot Derivative log-log plot
(Horner)

6 4
5
3
5
4
Skin 2
7
3 6
WBS 1
Radial Flow
2Skin Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow
• As we know from the semi-log analysis @ Early Time Region (ETR) that:
– Between points 1 – 3 is the WellBore Storage (WBS) effect.
– Between points 4 –1 5 is the skin effect.

261 Wellbore
storage

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot Derivative log-log plot
(Horner) Slope = 1 ( = 45o)

6 4 Skin
5
3 5
4
Skin 2
7
3 6
WBS 1
Radial Flow Skin
2 Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow
• On the derivative plot: Early Time Region (ETR)
– For portion of the curve on semi-log plot between points 1 – 6 with
different slopes,
1 data on derivative plot will follow different TRENDS.

262 Wellbore
storage

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot

6
Slope (m) = Const. 4
5
3
4 5
2
7
3
2 1
6
1
Wellbore
Radial Flow Skin storage Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow

– Between points 6 – 7, pressure will buildup inside the reservoir showing the
reservoir contribution to the pressure transient which is
characterized by a straight line with constant slope (m).

263

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot

6
Slope (m) = Const. 4
5 m = const.
3
4 5 Slope = 0
2
7
3
2 1
6
1
Wellbore
Radial Flow Skin storage Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow

– For portion of the curve on semi-log plot between points 6 – 7 with a

constant slope (m), since the derivative of a constant = (0), so this
mean a horizontal line characterize this period on the derivative plot.

264

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot

6
Slope (m) = Const. 4
5 m = const.
3
4 5 Slope = 0
2
7
3
2 1
6
1 IARF
Wellbore
Radial Flow Skin storage Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow

– This horizontal portion of the derivative is called the Infinite Acting

Radial Flow (IARF) inside the reservoir. This period is called Middle Time
Region (MTR).

265

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Applying this concept to all points on the semi-log plot we have:
7 Semi-log plot (Horner) Derivative log-log plot

6
Boundary 4
5
3 Boundary
4 5

2 7
3
2 1 6
1
Wellbore
Radial Flow Skin storage Wellbore storage Skin Radial Flow

– Pressure transient will disappears once reaching the boundary (after

point 7) and derivative shape will respond to geometry & conditions of
the boundary. This period is called Late Time Region (LTR).

266

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• The first portion of the derivative line is controlled by the wellbore
storage (Cs) effect which is characterized with a unity slope line ( = 45o).
Δ𝑉 1
𝐶=
𝑉
Δ𝑃q
Log ΔP = Log + Log Δt
VC

Y = a + mX
This s a straight-line Wellbore storage increases
equation with slope in this direction with (t)
(m = 1)  ( = 45o).
• Shifting of the derivative towards the right direction (increasing of t)
mean that more storage (longer time) was required for pressure
waves until stabilization to start the transient radial flow inside the reservoir.

267

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Hump of the derivative curve directly after the early WellBore Storage
(WBS) is a characteristics & dominated by the skin factor (S).

Skin increase in this direction

Skin decrease in this direction

• Generally, this hump tends to move upward when the skin (S) increases
& tends to move downward when the skin (S) decreases.

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• From the Darcy equation, value of the skin factor (S) is proportional to
pressure drawdown (P).

𝒒𝑥 = 𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓−𝑥ℎΔ𝑃
𝑟𝑒
𝜇𝑥𝛽𝑥 𝐿𝑛 𝑟𝑤 + 𝑆
Skin increase
in this direction
P

• So, an increase in the vertical distance between (P) & the derivative
lines @ late time corresponds to an increase in the value of the
skin factor (S).

269

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
162.6 qμβ
• From Horner equation, slope @ late time (psi/cycle) = 𝐦 = kh
• So, from Horner equation, (m) is inversely proportional with (k).

5000

4800

4600

4400
(m) increases &
m
P w s , psi

4200
(k) decreases in
4000
this direction P
3800

3600
1 10 100 10000 100000
1000
(Tp + t)/t

• So, an increase in the vertical distance between (P) & the derivative
lines @ late time corresponds to a decrease in the permeability (k).

270

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Position of this IARF horizontal line on the derivative plot is used to
calculate the permeability (k).

5000

4800

4600

(m) increases &

m
4400
P w s , psi

4200
(k) decreases in
4000
this direction P
3800

3600
1 10 100
1000
10000 100000 IARF
(Tp + t)/t

Value of the slope (m)

• If this horizontal line moved upward, it means
162.6 qμβ
that the slope (m) increases, & the permeability 𝐦=
(k) decreases & vice versa. kh

271

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Summary of the different signatures on the derivative plot.
(S) increase or (k) decrease
Unity slope line ( = 45 ) o

(S) decrease or (k) increase

(C) or (S)
increase

(C) or (S)
decrease

(C) de crease

(C) increase (k) decrease

IARF

Horizontal straight line

(k) increase characterize the radial flow

272

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Pressure Derivative Analysis:
• Derivative shape will respond to:
– Reservoir geometries (is it homogeneous, double porosity, two layers or
composite reservoir).
– Boundary configuration & conditions (is it infinite, faulting system,
closed system or constant pressure boundaries).
• It was found that, each reservoir geometry & boundary configuration or
condition has its own effect on the derivative shape.
• For this reason, many models were developed in order to match the
derivative of the measured data that help in identifying the reservoir
geometry & the boundary configuration conditions.

273

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
1− Homogeneous Reservoir – Vertical FULL Completed Well:

• Homogeneous reservoir has the same (k)

& () everywhere in all horizontal directions
(but may vary in the vertical direction).

• On the derivative plot, the

Homogeneous
reservoir
response starts directly after
• It ending of WBS & skin effects. IARF
is characterized by a horizontal
line that describes IARF inside the
homogeneous reservoir.
• k = derivative value & both is a
function of (m) k = derivative value & both is a function of (m)

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
2− Homogeneous Reservoir – Vertical PARTIALLY Completed Well:
• This type of partially perforation
or partially completion create a
Spherical or Hemispherical
flow around the wellbore.
• This cause the flow converges to
a reduced contact between the
well & the reservoir that create an
extra pressure drop around the
wellbore.
• This effect will appear as (-½)
slope line on the derivative
directly after the skin hump.
(-½) slope line on the derivative
directly after the skin hump

275

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
3− Homogeneous Reservoir – Horizontal Well:
• @ early time, after the WBS effect is
end, an early radial flow develops
around the horizontal section that gives
the value of vertical permeability (kv).
• @ middle time, upper or lower
sealing boundary will act as a
sealing fault & the derivative
will deviate upward IARF
follows a positive half +½ slope line
unit slope (+½ slope).
• @ late time, 2nd radial flow is
developed inside the reservoir due
thattogives
flow the value
comes of horizontal
from all directions 1st early radial flow around 2nd radial flow in
permeability (kh). the horizontal section (kv) the reservoir (kh)

276

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
4− Homogeneous Reservoir – Hydraulic Fractured Well:
• Hydraulic fracture acts as a tube connecting
between the reservoir & the wellbore where the flow
is perpendicular to the fracture length.
• Flow regime when the conductivity of the fracture is
finite is called a Bi-Linear flow regime which is a
flow regime due to.
1. Transient linear flow inside the IARF
fracture to the wellbore.
2. Formation linear flow inside
the formation toward the
fracture which is perpendicular
to surface of the fracture plane.
• On the derivative plot, it is shown as
two parallel lines with (¼ slope). ¼ slope lines for Bilinear flow regime

277

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
5− Two (double) Porosity reservoir:
• Two (double) porosity model
refers to the presence of natural
fractures or fissures inside
the rock matrix of the
entire reservoir.
• Rock matrix is characterized with
high storativity (m) &
• low
Fractures permeability
or fissures (km).are Fissures system
characterized with low reproduce again


storativity (f) & high



permeability (k ).
• On the derivativef plot, this valley is
due to pressure support from the This valley is due to pressure support from
matrix porosity to the fractures. the matrix porosity to the fractures

278

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
6− Composite Reservoir models:
• Composite models (Linear or Radial)
are used to model the lateral change Li ri
away from the wellbore such as.

Linear composite Radial composite

model model

Lateral change in lithology type,

i.e., reservoir permeability (k)
Lateral change in fluid type ()

Lateral change in reservoir Lateral change in all of them (k), (h) & ()
thickness (h)

279

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
6− Composite Reservoir models:
• Pressure waves propagation through the two regions with different
mobilities (1 & 2) of the inner & outer regions will create another
radial flow regime (m2) than the initial radial flow (m1).
• On the pressure derivative
plot, the 2nd radial flow regime M>1
(m2) will cause an UPWARD
or DOWNWARD deviation in M<1
the pressure derivative. m2
• (m1 & m 2) are slopes of the m1 M>1
straight lines portions on M<1
m2
Horner plot.
162.2 𝑞 𝛽1 𝜇1 162.2 𝑞 𝛽2 𝜇2
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = Time (t) to reach the boundary
𝑘1 ℎ1 𝑘2 ℎ2
between inner & outer regions

280

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
7− Constant Pressure boundary:
• Constant pressure boundary model is used
when there is a strong aquifer, or a strong
gas cap expansion that support the reservoir
pressure @ any time.

• Due to this continuous pressure

support from the aquifer or the
gas cap, reservoir pressure
will remain constant.
• Since the derivative of a
constant = (0)  this will cause IARF
the derivative shape to strongly
concave downward towards
zero @ late time.

281

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
8− Fault boundary:
• Faulting system cause breaking of the reservoir
section to segments that move either upward or
downward ends with forming either transmitting
or barrier boundaries to fluid flow & pressure
communication around the reservoir.

• In case of a single sealing fault,

presence of fault will cause extra
pressure drop @ late time like if
there is a low permeability there.
• On the derivative plot, derivative m2 = 2 m1
m1
will stabilize @ a 2nd (IARF)
value
double that of the 1st
(IARF) period (m2 = 2 m1). Time (t) @ which pressure waves response
due to presence of the fault

282

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Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
9− Closed-Circle boundary reservoir:
• @ early time, before the circular boundary is seen,
the response corresponds to that of an Infinite
Acting Radial Flow (IARF) system.
• When the influence of the closed circle boundary is
seen this (IARF) response is affected.
• On the pressure derivative curve
for the drawdown test, this type
of flow is characterized by a
unity slope line @ the Unity slope
late time. line

283

Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Derivative shapes
9− Closed-Circle boundary reservoir:
• On the pressure derivative curve for a buildup
test, the pressure stabilizes & then the
derivative curve plunges.

derivative
curve plunges

284

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• Main objectives for the reservoir engineer is to know:

1. The initial reservoir pressure for the new exploratory fields.

2. The current reservoir pressure for the developed fields.

3. Estimation of the reservoir fluid mobility & rock permeability.

4. And to get representative fluids samples for PVT analysis.

• A wireline Formation Testing (FT) tool provide the above information.

285

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• A wireline Formation Testing (FT) tool was introduced early 1955 & since
that time it is under development (RFT then MDT) with a new features that
help in understanding the reservoir properties.
• An electric wire line is used to FT RFT MDT
RIH with the formation
testing tool that is used
to send an electrical
signals that operate
the tool downhole & to display
the real time data on a screen
on the surface monitor in the
logging truck.
• Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)
is the last generation that helps
to obtain current static
& flowing bottom hole
pressures & to sample
formation fluids @
286 the reservoir conditions.

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• MDT simply consist of a retractable probe that is sealed by
rubber packer & is connected to a chamber inside the MDT tool.

Probe

Rubber packer

287

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• There are many types (modules) of the MDT tool that provides specific
functions such as:
1. Single-Probes Module
2. Dual-Probes Module
3. Pressure Xpress ─ XPT
4. Two Packers Module (Straddle Dual Packers Module)
• Let’s see how these modules work and applied in the field.

288

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

1 Single-Probes Module:
• Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT) tool with a single probe (MRPS)
contains of different modules each to provide a specific
function which were not available in the old fashion RFT (Repeat
Formation Tester) tool such as:
1. Pump-out module: to pump the mud filtrate from the
formation until reservoir fluid is identified with the resistivity
cell or Optical Fluid Analyzer (OFA).
2. Fluid Analysis: using Optical Fluid Analyzer (OFA) & Live Fluid
Analyzer (LFA) modules for real-time flow
resistivity measurements to differentiate mud
filtrate, water, hydrocarbons during cleanup & sampling
3. Multi Sample Module: Modular Reservoir Multi-Sample module
(MRMS) that has 6 sample bottles each with volume of 450 cc.

289

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• This is probe in both CLOSED & OPENED positions.

• Once the probe expanded against the borehole wall,

pressure draw-down is applied by opening a
chamber & the pump-out module inside the tool,
then formation fluids start to flow through the probe into
the tool.

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• Once formation fluid move
from the formation into the tool,
It will pass through a
resistivity gauge to
Formation
identify the true Fluid

formation fluid rather than the

borehole mud.
• Then the formation fluid will
pass through a 20 cc pre-test
chamber that is connected to
a quartz gauge that measure the
formation pressure.
• Measured pressure by the tool
will equilibrate to the formation
pressure permeable
sufficiently if the formation
with
is
enough waiting time @ the
measuring point.

291

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• Then the fluid passes through
the pump out module that to
divert the mud filtrate
outside the tool until get the
Formation
clean formation fluid before Fluid

sampling.
• Once the reservoir fluid is
confirmed by the Optical Fluid
Analyzer (OFA), formation fluid
flow is diverted to the sample
chamber to be preserved
there.
• MDT can sample up to 6
samples (450 cc each) from
different points in one run
that are used for the PVT
analysis.

292

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

• Pressure differential (P) between sampling (flowing) pressure &
formation static pressure coupled with the flow rate (q) which is
equivalent to the total recovered fluid volume divided by sampling
time during the test is sufficient to estimate the formation permeability
(k) as defined by Darcy law.
total recovered fluid volume 𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑞 𝜇
𝐪=
tim 𝑘=
k
e
: Formation Permeability, md.
Δ𝑃
q : Flow rate, cc/sec.
µ : Fluid viscosity (mud filtrate or formation fluid viscosity), cp.
 : Final pressure drawdown before shut-in, psi.
P
• Since formation permeability (k) & flow
𝑞 0.00708 𝑘ℎ
rate (q) are calculated then well 𝑃. 𝐼 = =
productivity index (P.I) can be roughly Δ𝑃 𝜇 𝛽 𝐿𝑛 𝑟𝑒
estimated. 𝑟 𝑤

293

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

2- Dual-Probes Module:
• MDT dual-probe module (MRDP) is used to determine
both horizontal & vertical permeability & to
conduct a vertical interference testing to determine
near-wellbore permeability anisotropy.
• It is equipped with TWO PROBES separated with some
distance allowing testing of tow zones @ the same
time.
• The interference test starts by setting & expanding one
probe against zone#1 & drawdown it till finish the
normal test procedures then close the pumps against this
zone.
• Without moving the MDT string, expand the second
probe against zone#2 & drawdown it for some
time.
• Start to drawdown zone#1 again while continue
drawdown zone#2 meanwhile monitor the
pressure response for zone#2.
• Change of pressure responses indicate that there is a
vertical communication between the zones.
294

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

3- Pressure Xpress ─ XPT:
• This tool is a unique type of MDT which is slim & short in length (3 – 5 ft)
that was developed to be combined with the open hole logs string to
measure the current reservoir pressure @ any point in the formation
during recording the open hole logs (reservoir pressure while logging).
• It contains only a probe & one chamber with volume of 50 cc that is used
only to record pressure without collecting any formation fluid
sample.

295

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

4- Two Packers Module (Straddle Dual Packers Module):
• In some cases, normal MDT with one probe module (MRPS) has some
limitation such as in case of:
►
Naturally fractured reservoirs when
the packer set against the fractures,
seal is lost.
►
Thin laminated reservoirs where it is
difficult to set the probe @
the required certain depth.
►
Low permeability reservoir, i.e., low
mobility (k/ < 0.5 md/cp) where
filling the chambers
through the normal single
probe requires very long time.
• MDT with single probe will not properly work in the above conditions,
so MDT dual packer module was developed for such application.

296

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

4- Two Packers Module (Straddle Dual Packers Module):
• MDT dual packers module consist of two
inflatable upper & lower packer elements that
seal against the borehole wall to isolate an
interval required for the test. Upper
Packer
• Length of the test interval between the two
packers is (3.2 ft) & can be extended to (11.2 ft).
• For the (3.2 ft) test interval, the bore isolated
Suction
interval area for test is about 3000 times larger Valve
than that of the single probe module resulting
in much more area to be subjected to flow.
• MDT dual packer module can also be used to Lower
create micro hydraulic fractures by pumping Packer

borehole fluids into the test interval that can be

pressure tested to determine the min. in-situ
stress magnitude.

297

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Problems during the MDT test:
1. Packer seal lost:
• Due to bad hole conditions (caving or washout), the packer is set
against non isolated area and the recorded pressure is always
equal to the borehole mud hydrostatic pressure.

2. Supercharged formation:
• In low permeability zones due to exposed for the borehole mud
hydrostatic pressure for long time during drilling, the mud
invaded pressure will be retained in such low permeability zones.
• So, the pressure measured against this tight zones is relatively higher
than the offset points in the same reservoir unit, & it requires very
long time to stabilize to the real reservoir pressure value known
from the offset points.

298

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Problems during the MDT test:
3. Tight permeability zone:
• Occurs when we spent long time against the formation & retracted the
probe several times without success to move enough
volume of the formation fluids into the chambers to measure the reservoir
pressure.
• This is of course will consume the rig time and cost if we continue
sampling @ such points.
4. Probe Plugging:
• After setting the packer & expanded the probe towards the formation,
there is no pressure recorded.
• Unset the packer & move upward or downward to another location to
measure but also still there is no pressure recorded.
• in this case the probe may be plugged with the mud cake or any of the
formation flow back materials specially in the loose formations.

299

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

How to select MDT Pressure & Sampling Points:
• Selection of the MDT measuring points play the main role to find fluid
properties, formation pressure, reservoir connectivity &
permeability.
• Selection of the MDT measuring points starting with looking to the open
hole logs to define the required depth to measure the reservoir pressure
& sampling points to collect representative formation fluid samples.
• Avoid depths that have bad hole conditions (caving or washout) as
detected from the caliper log to avoid seal lost.
• Ensure that the selected depths are representative for the information you
want from the readings (i.e., if you want to detect for barrier try to select
some considerable points above & below the expected barrier depth to
obtain representative gradients showing the continuity).
• Try to optimize the sampling points as it consumes the rig time.

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3− Modular Dynamic T ester

(MDT)
Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• MDT data files comes from the service company contain this data @
every tested depth:
– Measured depths (ft/kb)
– Measured Mud hydrostatic pressure
– Measured Reservoir pressure
– Estimated Test Mobility
– Estimated Test permeability

301

3− Modular Dynamic T ester

(MDT)
Mud Hydrostatic Reservoir Test

MDT Pressure Data:

Depth Mobility
Pressure Pressure Permeability Remarks
MD (ft/kb) md/cp
psi psi md

8661 4225 3530 0.4 Tight Permeability

8664 4226 3531 9.5 5 Poor Permeability
8666 4227 3532 103.3 33 Very Good Permeability
8668 4228 3532 285.7 44 Excellent Permeability
8671 4230 4230 78 22 Seal lost (recorde reservoir presure = mud hydrostatic pressure)
8674 4231 3534 1.1 0.1 Tight Permeability
8680 4234 3561 4.4 1 Poor Permeability
8681.5 4235 3561 1.7 0.3 Poor Permeability
8683 4235 3562 16.8 2 Good Permeability
8722 4255 3600 165.9 30 Excellent Permeability
8726 4257 3600 5.2 2 Poor Permeability
8730 4259 3601 1106.7 88 Excellent Permeability
8734 4261 3602 Tight zone (long time and the pressure nit reach the expected reservoir presure)
8738 4263 3603 7.5 1 Poor Permeability
8742 4265 3605 147 12 Very Good Permeability
8746 4267 3606 0.2 Very Tight
8750 4269 3607 32.9 3 Good Permeability
8754 4271 3609 54.2 3.6 Good Permeability
8759 4273 3611 22.5 2.1 Good Permeability
8761 4274 3612 108 4.2 Very Good Permeability
8763 4275 3613 58.1 14 Good Permeability

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

MDT Sampling Data:
Total Formation Flowing
MD Time Pumping Expected
Date: Time Start Volume Press Press
ft/kb Finished Time (min) Contents
(litres) (psia) (psia)

8663 10-Jan-09 0:09 9:30 122 2670 3531 3432 Oil

8674 10-Jan-09 12:00 14:50 88 1333 3534 3446 Oil

8682 10-Jan-09 15:35 21:00 88 233 3561 3450 Water + Oil

8729 11-Jan-09 13:30 18:15 151 1193 3601 3523 Oil

8735 12-Jan-09 1:02 3:30 125 33 3602 3517 Oil+Gas

8751 12-Jan-09 5:46 8:30 120 22 3607 3523 Oil+Gas

• For data quality check:

– Mud hydrostatic pressure data should be plotted vs. depth to
calculate the equivalent mud weight then to be
compared to the actual mud weight in hole while
recording the MDT pressure data.
– Compare the lab-measured core permeability data with that is
estimated from the MDT test to ensure consistency.

303

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• Convert all test depths to True Formation pressure
Vertical Depths subsea (TVD/ss).

• Define the zonation (which group of

points are related to the same zone).
Depth (TVD/ss)

• Plot the MDT measured reservoir

pressures values vs. the True
Vertical Depths subsea (TVD/ss) to Gas Oil Contact
define the fluid gradients then fluids (GOC)
contacts inside the reservoir which
are the intersection points between
two different gradient lines.

Free Water Level

(FWL)

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• Calculate the pressure gradient between every two successive points
which is the difference in pressures between these two points divided
by the True Vertical Depths subsea (TVD/ss) @ these two points.

𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡) =
𝑇𝑉𝐷2 − 𝑇𝑉𝐷1
• Pressure gradient calculated from MDT data help to identify fluid types.
• Pressure gradient calculated between points that have berries between
them should be removed form the graphs because it is inconclusive
since the barriers break the continuity of the fluids.

305

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• This is a schematic shows the pressure gradients for two well in different
reservoirs where the Gas Water Contacts (GWC) can be easily identified.
• Note that, water gradient line is the same for the two wells since they are
connected with the same aquifer while the gas gradient lines for the
two-gas reservoir are not the same since they are located in different
reservoirs however, they are parallel indicating the same gas gradient.
Depth
Well-1 Well-2
(TVD/ss) Pressure plot

Gas
GWC
Water

GWC Gas
Water

Formation pressure

306

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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• The mobility value () @ every depth is
𝑞∗
calculated using Darcy’s equation. 𝐿𝑛(𝑟𝑒/𝑟𝑤)
𝑘/𝑢 =
0.00708 ∗ ℎ ∗ (𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓)
• But since the term of Ln(re/rw) is almost 𝑞
approximately equal to (7) & if (k) is 𝑘/𝑢 =
in Darcies, so the above equation becomes. ℎ(𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓)

• Well Productivity Index (P.I) can

be calculated either by means of 𝑞
the production data (q & P) 𝑃. 𝐼 = = 𝑘/𝑢 * ℎ
(𝑃𝑠−𝑃𝑤𝑓)
or by the mobility data, (k/)
while
(k) is in Darcies.

307

3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Pressure & Sampling Data:
• It is better to combine pressure & gradient plots with the open hole
logs in one presentation to compare the calculated parameters from
MDT with the real formations recorded by the open hole logs.

Reservoir pressure Porosity Log Resistivity Log

Depth, TVD

Depth, TVD

GOC GOC

OWC

FWL FWL

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3− Modular Dynamic T ester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Pressure Data:
• This is the calculation for the MDT measured pressure data.





Formation Formation Mud Hydrostatic Mud Reservoir Test Core
tops tops Depth Depth Pressure Gradient Pressure Gradient Mobility Permeability Permeability Remarks
ft/kb ft/ss ft/kb ft/ss psi/ft psi psi/ft md/cp
psi , md , md

8660 8124 8661 8125 4225 3530 0.4 Tight Permeability

8664 8128 4227 0.55 3531 0.32 9.5 5 7 Poor Permeability
8666 8130 4228 0.55 3532 0.32 103.3 33 35 Very Good Permeability

8668 8132 4229 0.55 3532 0.32 285.7 44 33 Excellent Permeability

Zone-I 8671 8134 4230 0.55 4230 78 22 15 Seal lost (recorde reservoir presure = mud hydrostatic pressure)
8674 8137 4232 0.55 3534 1.1 0 Tight Permeability
8680 8143 4235 0.55 3561 4.70 4.4 1 Poor Permeability
8681.5 8144 4236 0.55 3561 0.33 1.7 0 Poor Permeability

8686 8149 8683 8146 4237 0.55 3562 0.32 16.8 2 Good Permeability

8720 8181 8722 8183 4257 0.55 3600 165.9 30 33 Excellent Permeability
8726 8187 4259 0.55 3600 0.11 5.2 2 Poor Permeability
8730 8191 4261 0.55 3601 0.13 1106.7 88 84 Excellent Permeability
8734 8194 4263 0.55 3602 0.29 Tight zone (long time and the pressure nit reach the expected reservoir presure)
8738 8198 4265 0.55 3603 0.32 7.5 1 1 Poor Permeability

Zone-II
8742 8202 4267 0.55 3605 0.34 147 12 15 Very Good Permeability
8746 8206 4270 0.55 3606 0.37 0.2 Very Tight
8750 8210 4272 0.55 3607 0.37 32.9 3 6 Good Permeability
8754 8213 4274 0.55 3609 0.43 54.2 4 5 Good Permeability
8759 8218 4276 0.55 3611 0.43 22.5 2 1 Good Permeability
8761 8220 4277 0.55 3612 0.43 108 4 3 Very Good Permeability

8765 8224 8763 8222 4278 0.55 3613 0.44 58.1 14 11 Good Permeability

• Tight permeability  wait long time without measured flow.

• Seal lost  measured pressure = mud hydrostatic pressure.
• Poor permeability  wait long time to fill the chamber.

309

3− Modular Dynamic T ester

(MDT)
Analysis of MDT Pressure Data: Reservoir pressure, Grad.,
psi psi/ft
For zone-I:
• Gradient = 0.32 psi/ft  Oil
Although the two sets of points have the Zone#I
same gradient, but they are
geologically separated due to
different reservoir pressure values.
For zone-II:
• Gradient = 0.12 psi/ft  Gas
• Gradient = 0.35 psi/ft  Oil 
• Gradient = 0.43 psi/ft  Water
Continuity of the MDT pressure Zone#II 
points even with different slopes
(different fluids) indicating that they
all are in a vertical communication

with each others in one unit.
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3− Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT)

Analysis of MDT Sampling Data:
• This is the calculation for the MDT sampling data.
Estimated
Estimated
Total Formation Flowing Formation flow rate @
MD TVD/ss Pumping Expected K/ P.I rate @
Date: Volume Press Press Thickness sampling
ft/kb ft/kb Time (min) Contents md/cp bbls/day/psi Pwf =
(litres) (psia) (psia) ft (TVD/md) pressure
3000 psi
bbl/day

8663 8127 10-Jan-09 122 2670 3531 3432 Oil 16 198 123.7 2.0 1063

8674 8137 10-Jan-09 88 1333 3534 3446 Oil 32 137 48.2 1.6 832

8682 8145 10-Jan-09 88 233 3561 3450 Water + Oil 7 24 30.5 0.2 121

8729 8190 11-Jan-09 151 1193 3601 3523 Oil 25 72 36.3 0.9 551

8735 8195 12-Jan-09 125 33 3602 3517 Oil+Gas 8 2 3.5 0.0 17

8751 8211 12-Jan-09 120 22 3607 3523 Oil+Gas 6 2 3.3 0.0 12

435 2597

𝑞 𝑞 0.00708𝑘ℎ 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓
𝑘/𝑢 = 𝑃. 𝐼 = = 𝑘/𝑢 * ℎ 𝑄 =
ℎ(𝑃𝑠 − (𝑃𝑠−𝑃𝑤𝑓) 𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑤𝑓) 𝜇𝛽 𝐿𝑛 𝑟 + 𝑆
𝑤

• Total well flow rate based on sampling drawdown = 435 b/d.

• Total well flow rate based on actual well drawdown = 2597 b/d.

311

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• Opposite to oil, gas behaves in different ways responding to pressures &
temperatures changes.

Gas

Oil

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• So, in the reservoir for gas wells, gas velocity increased near the
wellbore & if it exceeds the critical velocity, then the turbulent flow
will be developed.
• In this case, the velocity near wellbore is high enough that Darcy’s law is
no longer true & the flow @ this point is called Non-Darcy flow.
• This high velocity & the turbulent flow near the wellbore will create
additional pressure drop to the reservoir pressure (Ps) which in turns
cause more reduction of the bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) then less
deliverability.

313

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• Let’s see the difference between Darcy flow & the Non-Darcy flow
behaviors.
• This is a pressure profile for Darcy flow without skin.
• Non-Darcy flow exhibit extra pressure drop (additional skin) due to
turbulence flow near the wellbore @ higher velocity (high flow rates).
Pressure
Distance
3 2 1

Pwf
Mechanical skin (S0)
P
wf
Rate dependent skin (Dq)
Pwf (D = 𝜕S/ 𝜕q)
1 Darcy pressure diffusion profile without skin
2 Darcy pressure diffusion profile with skin
3 Non-Darcy pressure diffusion profile with skin

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• This additional pressure drop due to turbulence is known as non-
Darcy skin due to turbulence (Sturb.).
• This skin due to turbulence (Sturb.) is a rate sensitive, i.e., it is a function
of gas flow rate (q) that is why it is called RATE DEPENDENT SKIN.
• So, the total system apparent or effective skin factor (S) that would be
measured during the buildup test is composed of two main components:
► Constant mechanical skin or rate-independent skin (S ).
0
► Rate-dependent skin (S
turb. = q * D = q * 𝜕s/𝜕q).
• Where (D) is the non-Darcy flow coefficient or the turbulence factor
measured in (d/MMscf) which is a measure of non-Darcy or turbulent
pressure loss (i.e., an additional pressure drop due to turbulent gas
flow to that predicted by Darcy's law) which is always (+ve) value.
• Total skin (S) = Mechanical skin (S0) + Rate dependent skin (Sturb.)
𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
𝑆 = 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞 = 𝑆0 + 𝑞 𝐷= =
𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝑞2 − 𝑞1
315

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

𝛛S
• Physical mechanical skin (S ) &
0 Non-Darcy coefficient (D) = can be
𝛛𝒒
estimated from the skin-rate relationship obtained from testing the well for
some successive flowing & shut-in periods known as isochronal test &
modified isochronal test.

pR S1 S2 S3 S4
Pressure
psia

Pwf1

Pwf2
Pwf3
MMscf/

Pwf4
qg

q3 q4
0 q1 q2 0
0 0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• Then plot the test flow rates vs. each corresponding apparent (pseudo)
skin factors.
• Draw the best fit straight line.
3.0

• From the plot we can determine:

2.0
– D (d/MMscf):
1.0
Non-Darcy coefficient equals to D
SLOPE of the relationship best 0.0

Skin
fit straight line. S0
-1.0
– S0 (dimensionless):
-2.0
The physical mechanical skin
equals to the INTERCEPT of -3.0
the relationship best fit straight 0 1 2 3 4 5
line with Y – axis. qg, MMscf/d

317

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• The general form of the pseudo-steady state gas flow deliverability
equation that is used to predict the bottom hole flowing pressures (Pwf)
values that would be if the pseudo-steady state condition was reached
during the test (which of course required long test time) is given by:

𝑟𝑒
2 2 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝜇lj
𝑔 𝑍𝑅ሜ 𝑇 𝑟𝑤 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞
𝑝lj− 𝑝
= 𝐿𝑛 0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
𝑅 𝑤𝑓
: surface gas production rate, MMscf/d
qsc
: average reservoir pressure in the drainage area @ (re), psia
𝐩ഥ𝐑
: bottom hole flowing pressure @ (rw), psia
Pwf : mechanical skin
S
Do 𝛛S
: Non-Darcy coefficient = 𝛛𝒒

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• This equation can be written in the following form that is known as
Fetkovich’s equation.

2 2 𝑛
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝lj
𝑅 𝑤𝑓
−𝑝
C : gas deliverability coefficient or flow performance constant, (MMscf/d/psia2)

0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
𝐶=
𝜇lj
𝑔 𝑅 𝐿𝑛 𝑟𝑒 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞
𝑟𝑤
𝑍ሜ 𝑇
n : deliverability exponent or the turbulent flow exponent to account for the
observed deviation from the ideal flow behavior due to turbulence flow.
It varies between (0.5 < n < 1)
(1) for laminar (Darcy) flow & (0.5) for turbulent (Non-Darcy) flow.

319

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Absolute Open Flow (A.O.F):
• It is theoretical maximum flow rate that could occur if the bottom hole
flowing pressure (pwf) was reduced to atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia).
• Absolute Open Flow (A.O.F) can be directly calculated from the pseudo-
steady state gas flow deliverability equation using the constants (C & n) &
replacing the bottom hole flowing pressure (pwf) with the atmospheric
pressure (14.7 psia).
2 2 𝑛
A.O.F = 𝐶 𝑝lj
𝑅
− 14.
7
• But since the atmospheric pressure value of (14.7 psia) is too much
smaller compared to the average reservoir pressure ( 𝐩ഥ𝐑 ) value so
sometimes the value of 𝑝ҧ2𝑅 is directly used to estimate the (A.O.F).
2𝒏
A.O.F = 𝐶𝑝 𝑅
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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Analysis of gas flow equation:
• This is the general form of the pseudo-steady state gas flow
deliverability equation.
𝑛
2 2
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝lj−
𝑅
𝑝𝑤𝑓
• There are two ways to analyze this equation:
1. Empirical Method:
Re-arrange the equation in a LOGARITHMIC form & find the
constants (n) & (C) from the slope & the intercept point of the best
fit straight line, respectively.
2. Theoretical Method:
Re-arrange the equation in a QUADRATIC form & find the quadratic
constants (b) & (a) from the slope & the intercept of the best fit
straight line, respectively.

321

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

1− Empirical Method:
• Re-arrange the equation in a LOGARITHMIC form & find the constants
(n) & (C) from the slope & the intercept point of the best fit straight
line, respective ly. 𝑛
2 2
𝑞𝑠𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑝lj−
𝑅
𝑝𝑤𝑓

2 2 1 1 1
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑝lj− 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝑅 𝑛 𝑛 𝐶
• This equation (Y = aX + b) suggest that a Log–Log plot of 𝑝ҧ2 −𝑅𝑝2 𝑤𝑓
vs.
(qsc) yield a straight line called Deliverability Inflow Performance line.

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

1− Empirical Method:

2 2 1 1 1
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑝lj− 𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝑅 𝑛 𝑛 𝐶
• Slope (a) & the intercept point (b) with Y – axis of this Deliverability
Inflow Performance line is used to determine the constants (n) & (C).
𝟏
– Slope (a) =
𝒏

1 1
– Log value of the intersection point (b) with Y – axis = 𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝑛 𝐶

• So, in order to establish a straight line, we need @ least two valid test
points through which the line may be drawn.
• In general practice it is suggested that 4 – 6 test points be obtained to
minimize the errors & enable to eliminate any bad test point.

323

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

1− Empirical Method:
• Test data may be directly plotted on a Log–Log plot or the Logarithm
values of the data to be plotted on a normal Cartesian plot.
100000000 7.5

10000000 𝟏
Slope =
𝒏 7.0
1000000
Best fit deliverability
),
2

100000 6.5 inflow performance line

, psia

Log (P2 - P2

𝟏
wf

10000 1 1 Slope =
psia2

Log (Intersection) = 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝒏

wf
2

𝑛 𝐶 6.0
P2 ws - P

1000
ws

100
5.5
1 1
10 Intersection = 𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝑛 𝐶
1 5.0
1 10 100 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.0

qg, MMscf/d 0.6

Log (qg), MMscf/d
Log–Log plot Cartesian plot

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

2− Theoretical Method:
• Again, the general form of the pseudo-steady state gas flow deliverability
equation is given by:
𝑟𝑒
2 𝑞𝑠𝑐 𝜇lj
2𝑔 𝑍ሜ
𝑅 𝑇 𝑟𝑤 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 + 𝐷𝑞
𝑝lj − 𝑤𝑓
𝑝 =
𝑅 𝐿𝑛 0.703 ∗ 10−6 𝑘ℎ
• This equation can be written in this QUADRATIC form:

2 2 2
𝑝lj
𝑅
− 𝑤𝑓
𝑝 = 𝑎𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝑏𝑞𝑠𝑐
𝜇lj𝑔𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅 𝑟𝑒
𝑎= 𝐿𝑛 − 0.75 + 𝑆0 psi2 / (MMscf/d)
0.703 ∗ 10 −6 𝑘ℎ 𝑟𝑤
𝜇lj𝑔𝑍ሜ 𝑇𝑅
psi2 / (MMscf/d)2
𝑏 = 0.703 ∗ 10 𝑘ℎ
−6
𝐷

325

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

2− Theoretical Method:
2 2 2
𝑝lj
𝑅
− 𝑤𝑓
𝑝 = 𝑎𝑞𝑠𝑐 + 𝑏𝑞𝑠𝑐

• This is a quadratic equation that can be mathematically solved to

determine the flow rate (q) that is corresponding to any given pressure
values of (𝐩ഥ𝐑) & (pwf).
• So, select any two representative stabilized test points & using their
values of (q1 , pwf-1) & (q2 , pwf-2) to mathematically calculate the values
of the two constants (a) & (b).
• These are the two equations with two unknown (a) & (b) that can be
solved together to find the values of the two unknown (a) & (b).
2 2
𝑝lj
2 2 2 2
= 𝑎𝑞2 + 𝑏𝑞2
𝑅
𝑤𝑓−1 = 𝑎𝑞 1 + 𝑏𝑞 1 𝑝lj
𝑅
−𝑝 𝑤𝑓−2

−𝑝
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2− Theoretical Method:
• Or to find the values of (a) & (b) graphically by re-arranging the flow
2
equation in this form:
2
• This quadratic equation (Y = a + bX) 𝑅 𝑝lj 𝑤𝑓
= 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑞𝑠𝑐
suggests that a plot of 𝑝ҧ 𝑅− 𝑝 𝑤𝑓 vs.
2 2
− 𝑠𝑐𝑝
(qsc) on a Cartesian plot should yield
a straight-line with slope = (b) &
600000
𝑞
intercept with Y–axis @ point = (a). 500000

/qg, psia /MMscf/d

• As in the Empirical Method, a best fit 400000
line is drawn through the test points a b
300000
to establish the deliverability
inflow performance line. 200000
wf
Best fit deliverability
• Once the constants (a) & (b) are
-P
inflow performance line
100000
ws

determined, the gas

deliverability (qsc) can be predicted 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
bottom
@ any hole
givenpressure (p ).wf qg, MMscf/d

327

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

• There are many tests dedicated for gas well testing that are called gas
deliverability tests.
• These tests are used to measure well production capabilities under
specific conditions of reservoir pressure (Pr) & bottomhole flowing
pressure (BHFP).
• These deliverability tests are:
1. Flow After Flow (FAF) test
2. Isochronal test
3. Modified Isochronal test

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Flow After Flow (FAF) Test:
• In this test a sequence of rate changes is applied.
• The well flow under a constant rate until it reaches the stabilized pseudo
steady state conditions.
• After the stabilized rate & pressure are recorded, the rate is changed &
the well flows until pressure stabilizes again.
• The same procedure is repeated three or four times before shut-in the
well for the final pressure build up period.

329

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Flow After Flow (FAF) Test:
• This is a typical Flow After Flow (FAF) test.

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Flow After Flow (FAF) Test:
Analysis of the Flow After Flow (FAF) test data.

• Plot of 𝑅 𝑝ҧ 𝑤𝑓
2
− 𝑝2 vs.
(q
onsc)a Log-Log plot should
yield a straight-line with:
𝟏
– Slope = 𝟏
𝒏 𝒏
– Intercept with Y–axis @
1 1
point = 𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝑛 𝐶

331

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Isochronal Test:
• It is similar to the flow after flow test, but it requires to shut-in the well
between the flow periods until reaches the stabilized static pressure.
• The objective of this test is to obtain a stabilized deliverability without
having to flow long time enough to achieve the pseudo-steady state.
• In this case we produce the well @ some transient rates for the same
period of time (t) & record the corresponding bottom hole
flowing pressure (Pwf) @ the end of each flow period.
• Between each flow period, close the well until the bottom hole shut-in
pressure reach the stabilized static pressure (initial value
before flowing) then start flowing the well again @ another flow rate & so on.
• The duration of each shut-in period is controlled by well performance
itself until reaching the stabilized static pressure for all shut-in
periods.
• Extend the last flow rate to longer time that is called the extended
stabilized flow period to ensure achieving the pseudo-steady
state conditions.

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Isochronal Test:
• This is a typical Isochronal test.

Equal flow times = t

Enequal shut-in times

q1 < q2 < q3 < q4

Pwf1 > Pwf2 > Pwf3 > Pwf4

P1 P2 P3
P1 = P2 = P3

333

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Isochronal Test:
Analysis of the Isochronal test data.
• Plot of 𝑅 𝑝ҧ 𝑤𝑓
2
− 𝑝2 vs. (qsc)
on
a Log-Log plot for both 𝟏
transient rates & extended 𝒏
stabilized rates.
• Stabilized Deliverability Line
for the last Extended
Stabilized Flow Period
has the same
slope for the transient line for
the flow periods but
with different
intersection point 𝟏
& intercept with
𝒏
with Y-axis.
1
Y–axisStabilized
• This 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶1 .
@ point = 𝑛Deliverability
Line is with slope =
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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Modified Isochronal Test:
• Modified isochronal test is used when the permeability around the
wellbore is expected to be relatively low, so the conventional
isochronal test become non-useful as it requires very long time for the
pressures to reach the stabilized pseudo-steady state & hence
the stabilized reservoir pressure during the shut-in periods.
• It is a special case of the isochronal test with the same procedure, but it
does not allow the pressure to stabilize @ the stabilized
static pressure during the shut-in periods.
• In this test, the flow periods & shut-in periods (t) are equally so there
is no need to wait during the shut-in period until the bottom hole
shut-in pressure reaches the stabilized static pressure.
• Similar to the isochronal test, extend the last flow rate to longer time
that is called extended stabilized flow period to ensure
achieving the pseudo-steady state conditions.

335

4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Modified Isochronal Test:
• This is a typical Modified Isochronal test.

Equal Shut-in times &

Flow times = t

q1 < q2 < q3 < q4

Pwf1 > Pwf2 > Pwf3 > Pwf4

P1
P2
P1 > P2 > P3 P3

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4− Gas Wells Deliverability Tests

Modified Isochronal Test:
Analysis of Modified Isochronal test.
• Plot of 𝑅 𝑝ҧ 𝑤𝑓
2
− 𝑝2 vs. (qsc)
on
a Log-Log plot for both
transient rates & extended
stabilized rates.
• Stabilized Deliverability Line
𝟏
for the last Extended 𝒏
Stabilized Flow Period
has the same
slope for the transient line for
the flow periods but
with different
𝟏
• intersection point
This Stabilized Deliverability Line is with slope = & intercept with
𝒏
with Y-axis.
1
Y–axis @ point = 𝑛𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶1 .

337

Downhole Production
Problems
Conning & Condensate
Blockage
338
(Banking)

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Water & Gas Coning

• Coning is the abnormal upward movement of water and/or the
downward movement of gas in the near-wellbore into the perforations of
a high vertical permeability reservoir due to high drawdown pressures
(P = Ps − Pwf) with high production rates.
• This is a reservoir @ the static • This is the reservoir with coning
condition or flow without phenomena during production.
coning.

339

Water & Gas Coning

• Coning can seriously reduce well
productivity & influence the
overall recovery efficiency of the oil
reservoirs.

• Water and/or gas coning can be reduced

by:
– Decrease well production rate.
– Drilling horizontal wells instead of
vertical wells to reduce the
pressure drawdown (P = Ps − Pwf) along
the horizontal section.
– Partially penetrating the well in the pay zone only @ the top part of
the reservoir in the case of water coning.
– Selectively partially perforating the well:
►
@ the top of the reservoir in the case of water coning.
►
@ the bottom of the reservoir in case of gas conning.
►
@ the middle of the reservoir in case of water or gas conning.

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Water & Gas Coning

• The last two options (Partially penetrating the pay zone & Selectively
partial perforation) will result-in Hemispherical & Spherical flows that in
turns create additional pressure drop around the wellbore due to fluid
converges towards the partially penetrating or perforated sections &
hence additional +ve skin.
– Partial perforation (Spherical Flow): a well is only perforated @
middle of the pay zone.
– Partial reservoir penetration or limited-entry completions
(Hemispherical Flow): a well that is only partially penetrates the
pay zone or completely penetrate the pay zone but only partially perforated
@ the upper or lower parts of the pay zone.

341

Condensate Blockage (Banking)

• Condensate BLOCKAGE or condensate BANKING occurs in retrograde
gas−condensate reservoir when the reservoir pressure (Pr) drops below
the dew point pressure (Pdew).

Gas

Dew pressure

Current pressure

Gas
+ Condensate

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Condensate Blockage (Banking)

• This condition (Pr < Pdew) will cause
Gas
some condensate to be
dropped- out from the gas in
the accumulated
be reservoir & around the
wellbore that tends to get trapped &
motionless in the pores. Condensate

• This condensate blockage will slow

gas flow as a result of a reduction
in the relative permeability to
gas (krg) & gas mobility
(kg/g) near the wellbore & hence a
reduction in well
productivity.

343

Condensate Blockage (Banking)

• PTA for a PBU test using a
compositional model due to
Li
lateral change in fluid type ()
is a diagnostic tool that Lateral change in
is used to detect if a fluid type ()
condensate banking Linear composite
accumulated around model
the wellbore or no.
• Below is an example of a build up test that shows two stabilization zones
which reflect a reduction in permeability when approaching the wellbore
from (22 mD) to (12 mD) that it can be due to condensate Banking.

344

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Reservoir
Simulation
345

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

• Early in a field’s life, it is essential to be able to evaluate the following:
►
How much hydrocarbon is in place inside the reservoir?
►
How much of that hydrocarbon can potentially be recovered?
►
How will the reservoir perform under various development plan
scenarios?
• A dynamic reservoir simulation model is a useful tool that may help to
answer those questions.
• Reservoir simulation is a well-known tool using a MODEL developed by
combining physics, mathematics, reservoir engineering equations &
historical data in a computer programmed model to predict reservoir
fluids flow through porous media & forecast hydrocarbon reservoir
performance under various operating strategies that helps to decide on the
optimum development strategies.

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• Data that is used as an input into the simulation model such as:
– Structural information
– Rock & fluids properties.
– Wells completion data.
– Historical production.
– Operating constraints.

347

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

• Numerical reservoir simulation models are used to compute the
changes in reservoir pressures & saturations for all phases for @ any
location inside the reservoir @ any time step.
• Then it is used for forecasting future oil production, decision-making &
reservoir management to optimize the field development.
• Simulation is a great tool for reservoir management because of the need
for support decisions & economic justification with accurate technical data
that use for making future development of a field.
• Basic understanding of reservoir modelling is essential so that the
engineer become competent in setting up simulation problems, in
deciding on appropriate input data & in evaluating the results.
• No simulator can replace RELIABLE DATA or the BRAIN of the user.

348

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• This reservoir simulation
model
enables
data that couldengineer
reservoir analyze by
not beto described
simple “hand traditional calculations
due to their complexity.
� �
�
many times during field life considering different
�
• Reservoir simulation model is extremely powerful tool that can be run
methods of the field
development that can provide valuable answers to the reservoir
management team.

Injection wells

349

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

• Generally, using reservoir simulation models enable us to predict fluids
saturations & the pressures @ any point in the reservoir @ any
time.
• There are two categories of models used in the market, Material Balance
simulator (MBAL, … etc.) & the Numerical simulator
(ECLIPSE & VIP…etc.).

Material Balance Simulator (MBAL):

• It is also called tank model or zero-dimensional model.
• It does NOT CONSIDER the effect of the porous media on the flow
inside the reservoir & treat the reservoir with uniform average
properties & the entire reservoir is in communication without
any physical barriers.
• MBAL is used to determine hydrocarbon in place, gas cap size, aquifer
size & the recovery factor @ different scenarios of development.
• It can not predict the changes in pressure or saturation with time.

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Numerical Simulator:
• There are 5 types of the numerical simulator:
1. Single Phase Model.
2. Black Oil Model (ECLIPSE 100 – ECLIPSE Black oil).
3. Compositional Model (ECLIPSE 300 – ECLIPSE Compositional).
4. Dual Porosity (Fractures) Model.
5. Thermal & Chemical Models (ECLIPSE 500).

1. Single Phase Model:

• To simulate for one phase only moving inside the reservoir.
• If another phase such as water is present, it is considered as an
immobile (connate) water.
• One example of the single-phase model is the dry gas model.

351

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

2. Black Oil Model (ECLIPSE 100 – ECLIPSE Black oil):
• In this model, fluid compositions is constant & there is NO
CHANGE in both gas or oil COMPOSITION due to
pressure depletion with production time & also there is no
change in composition with depth.
• It is used to simulate for two phases (water & oil or gas & oil) or three
phases (oil, gas & water) that are moving inside the reservoir.

3. Compositional Model (ECLIPSE300 - ECLIPSE Compositional):

• A compositional reservoir simulator is used to simulate for the expected
fluids (gas or oil) COMPOSITIONS CHANGES during the
depletion process or when there is a change in gas or oil
compositions with depth (always in structural reservoirs).
• It is used to simulate the miscible gas injection process that will
change the exiting oil composition.

352

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4. Dual Porosity (Fractures) Model:
• Natural fracture simulation (known as dual-porosity &
dual- permeability) is an advanced feature complex model.
• It is used to simulate for the performance of the naturally fractured
reservoirs as for carbonate reservoirs.

5. Thermal & Chemical Models (ECLIPSE 500):

• Thermal simulators allowing temperatures to change within the
reservoir.
• It is used to simulate for the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes
(most commonly used for heavy crude oil applications).

353

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Static Reservoir Model:
• Static reservoir model is
mainly for the
geological data
description before start
production.
• It is considered as a dynamic
model @ zero-time step
or @ the initial conditions.

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Static Reservoir Model:
• Building the static geological model is done by using cores data & the
correlations (Gross thickness, Porosity & Net to Gross ratio).

Gross Thickness Porosity Net to Gross Ratio

355

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Reservoir Model:
• Dynamic reservoir model combine the static model, pressures, production,
PVT, relative permeability & saturation data, facilities data, wells locations
& geometries to calculate the pressure & saturation distribution into the
reservoir.

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Dynamic Reservoir Model:
• Dynamic model is used to simulate several production profiles scenarios
to prepare the Full Field Development Plan (FFDP) considering different
exploitation schemes & operating conditions to optimize the depletion plan.
800,000
New 30 Infills
Approved 28 Infills
700,000
W/O
Existing Wells
600,000 Inj. Supported Oil Potential
Target _IV
500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0
2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

357

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Gridding:
• It is to model the reservoir as if it is divided
into several individual blocks (grids).
• Each block corresponds to a location in the
reservoir with specific values
of the properties (i.e., pressure, fluids
saturations, permeability (k), … etc.).
• Within a grid block the properties are uniform.

Local Grid Refinement:

• Fine grids with smaller sizes are
required for only certain parts
of the reservoir For some simulation
studies when saturation & pressure are
expected to vary significantly or
to study & evaluate some specific
projects.

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• So, by gridding the reservoir, dynamic of each portion may be
different than the others.

359

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

• This is an example of a gridded reservoir.

360

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Upscaling: Unit-1
Unit-2
• In the GEOLOGICAL gridding model, Unit-3
Unit-4
reservoir is divided into several individual
blocks (units or layers) each with the Unit-5
Unit-6
same properties. Unit-7

• This is for more detailed Unit-8

Unit-9
geological studies & description.
GEOLOGICAL model classification

• But in the RESERVOIR gridding model,

Unit-1
the main concern of the reservoir engineer
is the Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) that are
dynamically in communication Unit-2
more than for those with the
same properties, i.e., less
Unit-3
geological units.
RESERVOIR model classification

361

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Upscaling:
• Upscaling technique is an averaging process that was developed to
decreases the geological subdivision units from small cells
high- resolution into another lower number of units with larger cells
low- resolution that have the same reservoir description to be used in
the dynamic simulation model.
• This upscaling process is done to decrease the resolution of the fine grid
model (scale the cell size) to an acceptable level to be manageable
by the dynamic simulators without losing the accuracy of its
calculation.
• Upscaling help to reduce the computing memory & simulation time to
accelerate the full field evaluation & EOR strategies with
different scenarios.
• Note that after the upscaling process, we must ensure that we did not:
►
Affect the total pore volume of the reservoir.
►
Lose the layering thickness & sequence.

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Upscaling:
• These are examples of the upscaling technique.

363

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
• Simulation process go through several steps before establishing the
final reservoir simulation model which are:
1. Initialization
2. History Match
3. Prediction

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Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
1. Initialization:
• The initialization of the reservoir simulation models simply is the
process for description of the initial oil, gas & water
pressure gradient distribution & the initial saturations
distribution.
• The main objectives of the initialization process are to:
– Understand the initial condition of the reservoir (pre-production
state).
– Verify that the reservoir simulation model accurately represents
the structure & the properties in the static geologic model.
– Define the number of phases flowing inside the reservoir (single,
single or multi phases flow) to define the suitable model.

365

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
2. History Match:
• History Matching is to adjust a numerical model of a reservoir until it
closely reproduces the past actual behavior of this reservoir.
• Before performing the prediction for the future performance, we
must check model validity by calibrating it with the
actual historical data (oil rate, GOR, W.C, WOR, reservoir pressure, ..
etc.).
• If there is a match between the model & the actual historical data,
then the prediction will be accurate & representative.
• If not, so check & modify some of the input data to do the required
model adjustments until get a reasonable match with the
actual historical data that give us a confident about the model to be used
for the prediction & for a propre decision making.

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Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
2. History Match:
• These two examples of BAD & PERFECT history matches.

367

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
2. History Match:
• This is another example of the history matches.

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Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction:
• Prediction is an important step since it has a lot of uncertainties.

369

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction:
• Prediction process that is run once history match has been
completed to predict the future reservoir performance
under different exploitation scenarios such as:
►
Evaluate the ultimate recovery from certain process that enable to
select the optimum EOR recovery process.
►
Prediction of the oil reservoir performance under natural
depletion, water injection or other injection
process.
►
Determine the effects of wells locations, spacing & producing
rates on the recovery.
►
Determine the effect of different production plateaus on the
recovery.
►
Future W.C & GOR evolution with time.

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Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction:
• The most important recommendations while simulating are:
– It is not a matter of getting a good match between the actual
data & the simulated model using fake information but
to have a representative model that can rely on it for prediction.
– The QAQC measured parameters that were introduced to the
model should not be changed except for some acceptable &
reasonable smoothing in some parameters in order
to adjust the match.
– For data smoothing for model adjustment purpose, you must first
understand which parameter should be adjusted or smoothed
within a reasonable change to have a better match.

371

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction Example − 1:
• This is a comparison between the Actual & Simulated GOR
increase with time.
• It is clear that the model predicate late GOR increase.
GOR
• Rapid increase in the producing
GOR is due to that gas saturation
increased in the reservoir & Actual GOR
reached to the critical gas increase @
this time
saturation (S gc).

Simulated GOR
increase @ later time
Time

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Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction Example − 1:
• Actual & simulated GOR curves are paralleled after the sudden
GOR increase indicating that all the other parameters except
the critical gas saturation (Sgc) are reasonable enough & there is
no need to adjust any of them to improve the match.
GOR
• So, in this case, the critical gas
saturation (Sgc) is seemed to be
defined in the model relatively Actual GOR
HIGHER than the actual data. increase @
this time
• So, in this case review the relative
permeability curves &
check/adjust the critical gas
Simulated GOR
saturation (Sgc) in the increase @ later time
model & run the model again until
Time
have a better match.
373

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction Example − 2:
• Another example, the simulated GOR started to increase @ the
same time as the actual GOR but the simulated performance
after the increase is deviated away from the actual GOR (not
paralleled).
• Increasing both GOR’s @ the same
GOR
time reflecting that the critical
gas saturation (Sgc) is
well defined in the
model.
• That is in turns mean that the end
points in the relative
permeability curves that was used
Actual & simulated GOR
in the model is well defined too increased @ the same time
but the relative
Time
permeability curvatures requires
374 some adjustments.

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Dynamic Model Simulation Process Steps:
3. Prediction Example − 2:
𝑘𝑟𝑔
• This is the equation that relates the
= 𝑎𝑒−𝑏𝑆𝑜
relative permeability ratio
(krg/kro) to oil saturation (So).
𝑘𝑟𝑜
• So, we must adjust the values of
the constants (a & b) by a
moving the best fit
straight line in the
saturations vs. relative permeability k rg b
relationship to pass trough
the most representative data k ro
points.
• This will result-in a new shape for 0.4 0.6 Sgr 0.8 1
0 Soi 0.2
the relative permeability curves So
that will give a new simulated GOR
that should match with the actual GOR.
375

Reservoir Simulation − Basics

Model Prediction Scenarios:
• This is the simulation output after running several case scenarios to
select the best case to sustain the production target of 53,000 bopd.
• Of course, the base case could not achieve the production target.
• Drilling new producers is beneficial; however, there is no big difference
between 15 new producers and 20 new producers hence the number of
the drilled infills is optimized to be 15 wells only.
60000

50000

40000
Production Rate

30000
Base Case
1 0 N e w Producers
(BOPD)

20000
1 5 N e w Producers
2 0 N e w Producers
10000

0
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030

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Economics

377

Economics − Basics
• Capital expense (Capex) is the initial fixed one-time amount of money
invested to establish the business such as purchase of land, buildings,
construction & equipment used in the production of products.

• Operating expense (Opex) represents the other day-to-day expenses

necessary to keep the business running & to maintain the
organization existence such as rent, payroll, utilities, insurance,
maintenance, taxes & advertising.

• Investments (expenses) or CASH-OUT is the total amount of money

required to establish a project paid @ the begging of the project or over
the project lifetime.

Investment or Expenses (CASH-OUT)

= Capital expense (Capex) + Operating expense (Opex) + Taxes

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Economics − Basics
• Revenue (money generated) is the total amount of money a company
receives from its customers during a given year from the sale of its
products & services.

Revenue = Production * Price * no. of production days/period of time.

• Income refers to net profit i.e., what remains after expenses & taxes are
subtracted from revenue.

• Income (net profit) = Revenue − Expenses

• Revenue & Income are CASH-IN.

379

Economics − Basics
• Cash flow of a project is a series of cash movements of the
investments (cash-out) & the revenue (cash-in) occurring in specific
years during the project lifetime.

• Net Cash Flow (NCF) is the total cash inflow minus the total cash
outflow over a particular period.

NCF = total cash inflow (CASH-IN) − total cash outflow (CASH-OUT)

• Net Cash Flow (NCF) determines the economic life of this project. When
the cash flow becomes permanently negative, the project should be
halted.

• Once a cash flow has been calculated, & the economic limit determined,
you should then begin to apply financial indicators such as Payout
Time, Time Value of Money & the Profitability Indicators in order to
determine the profitability of the project.

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Payout Time
• Payout time of a project is the time @ which the income equal to the
investments or expenditures (time to return an investment).
• By another words, it is the time when the cumulative Net Cash Flow
(NCF) becomes positive indicates costs being recovered.
10
Cum. Net Cash Flow (NCF), MM$


No more profits
Payout time

0
Time, years

Initial investment
-10

381

Inflation
• Inflation is a quantitative measure often expressed as a percentage
indicates a decrease in the purchasing power of a nation’s currency
due to the increases in the general level of prices over a period of time
where a unit of currency buys less than it did before.
• Rising prices is the root cause of the inflation that erode the value of
money.
• If the prices goes down, will result-in a negative inflation which is called
deflation.

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Inflation
• The formula to calculate the Inflation
Rate over a specific period of
time is given by:
B
𝑩−𝑨
𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞, % = A
𝐴

A : starting price @ the beginning of the period of time.

B : ending price @ the end of the same period of time.

• So, if exactly one year ago the price of a specific product was 178 $ &
today is 185 $, then the Inflation Rate over one year is calculated as:

185−178
Inflation Rate, % = 178
= 3.93%

383

Time Value of Money

• Time value of money refers to moving a present value of cash forward
in time to a future value that helps in investment decision analysis,
which scenario to choose & to estimate the profitability.

Which would you choose . . .

Now? A year

from now?

• Generally, money is worth less, the longer you must wait to receive it.

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Time Value of Money

• A dollar today is always worth MORE than a dollar tomorrow because
of inflation that erode the value of money.
• In the same regard, money received today is worth more than money
received tomorrow.
• If you can take today’s earnings, you can invest it to earn additional
value.
• If you must wait to receive money later, you must delay the investment,
therefore potentially losing money.
• The difference between the value of a payoff today & a payoff
tomorrow is the “time value of money”.

385

Interest (Discount) Rate

• The interest (discount) rate (i) is the amount a lender charges a
borrower for the loans he take which it may changes from time to time.
• Interest (discount) rate (i) is determined from the inflation factor over a
period (n) where both interest rate & inflation rate tends to
be INVERSELY CORRELATED.
– In general, as interest rates are reduced, more people can borrow
more money. The result is that consumers have more
money to spend, causing the demand to be more than the supply &
inflation to increase.
– The opposite, as interest rates are increased, consumers tend to
save money in banks since the returns from savings are
higher. The result is that consumers have less money to spend,
causing the demand to be less than the supply & inflation to decrease.
• Interest rate (i) is used in the Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) analysis to
determine the Present Value (PV) of the Future Value (FV) of cash
flows.

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Present Value (PV) or Discounted Cash Flow

• Future Value (FV) is the Future cash flows, or the future profits gained
over a specific period of time (n).
• But it is unfair to add $100 today to $100 that is 5 years from now when
evaluating the value of the "complete cashflow" @ the reference date.
• So, we must bring all values to one common point of time (reference
date) that is called the Present Value (PV) of money.
• The Present Value (PV) represents the equivalent current value worth
today for the Future Value (FV) of cash flows occurring in specific period
of time (n) & discounted @ a specified interest (discount) rate (i).
• The higher the interest (discount) rate (i), the lower the Present Value
(PV) of the Future Value (FV) of a cash flows.
PV Cash Flow diagram for an investment FV

Year  X X+1 X+2 X+3 X+4 X+5 ------ X+j

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 ------ j

Interest rate i i i i i i i

387

Present Value (PV) or Discounted Cash Flow

• The Present Value (PV) is a function of:
– Amount of the Future Value (FV) or cash flow income, more Future
Value (FV) means a higher Present Value (PV).
– The interest (discount) rate (i), a higher (i) means a lower Present
Value (PV) .
– The time period (n) @ which future amounts will occur, a longer (n)
means a lower Present Value (PV).
• So, every Present Value (PV) must therefore be discounted with the
discount rate (i) & the reference date (n) @ which future amounts will
occur.

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Present Value (PV) or Discounted Cash Flow

• So, Present Value (PV) must be discounted with the interest (discount)
rate (i) & the reference date (n) @ which future amounts will occur.
• This is the equation that is used to discount the Present Value (PV) of
the Future Value (FV) of a cash flows.

𝐅𝐕
𝐏𝐕 =
1+𝑖 𝑛

PV : Present Value of the future stream of cash flow (income or expenses) for a
project receiving after (n) years @ interest (discount) rate (i) that is
discounted to today.
FV : Future Value income or cash flow of a project invested today.
i : interest (discount) rate (determined from the inflation factor), decimals.
n : time of the cash flow or number of discounting periods per total project
lifetime to calculate the interests @ which future amounts will occur (usually
years but may be also monthly, quarterly or semiannually).

389

Present Value (PV) or Discounted Cash Flow

• Simply:

– If the interest rate is 15%, so a dollar today is worth {$1 × (1 + 0.15)}

= $1.15 next year.

– If you want to know the value today that become one-dollar next
year, you will need today to have {$1 / (1 + 0.15)} = 87 cents.

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Present Value (PV) or Discounted Cash Flow

Example:
• Suppose that you must pay a total school fee of $5,000 in 5 years time &
the bank guarantee a constant interest (discount) rate of 10% for the next
5 years.
• So, the amount of money that you need to have today to meet this
obligation of a school fee of $5,000 in 5 years time can be calculated as
follows:

𝐅𝐕 𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = = = $𝟑, 𝟏𝟎𝟓
1+𝑖 𝑛 1 + 0.1 5

• We can say that $3,105 is the Present Value (PV) today of $5,000 in 5
years time, based on an interest (discount) rate of 10% per year.
• By another words, If someone offers to provide a cash payment now of
the $5,000 that worth after 5 years, we should get $3,105 from him now.

391

Net Present Value (NPV)

• The Net Present Value (NPV) is the difference between the Present
Value (PV) of the CASH INFLOWS & the Present Value (PV) of the
CASH OUTFLOWS over a period of time.
• This is the equation that is used to calculate the Net Present Value (NPV).
𝑗=𝑛
𝐅𝐕𝑗
𝐍𝐏𝐕 = ෍
1+𝑖 𝑗
𝑗=0

NPV: Net Present Value of the future profits or losses for a project receiving after (n)
years @ interest (discount) rate (i) that is discounted to today.
FV : Future Value income or net cash flow of a project @ time (n).
i : interest (discount) rate (determined from the inflation factor), decimals.
n : time of the cash flow or number of discounting periods per total project
lifetime to calculate the interests @ which future amounts will occur (usually
years but may be also monthly, quarterly or semiannually).

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Example
• Assume that I am planning to rent a flat for 5 months, and the owner
offered the below options of payment:
– $1000 now in advance for the whole rental period.
– $250 @ the beginning of every month (total of $1250 over the 5
moths).
– $250 @ the end of every month (total of $ 1250 over the 5 months).
– $1500 @ the end of the 5 months period.
• Which option do you think is the best option for me assuming that the
monthly interest rate (i) is 0.8%?

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Solution
• Solution start by calculating Net Present Value (NPV) @ every month for
the offered options using the equations below then to compare it with if I
pay today $1000 in advance (1st option).

𝑗=𝑛
𝐅𝐕 𝐅𝐕𝑗
𝐏𝐕 =
1+𝑖 𝑛
𝐍𝐏𝐕 = ෍
1+𝑖 𝑗
𝑗=0

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Solution
• For the 2nd option to pay $250 @ the beginning of every month (total of
$1250 over the 5 months).

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (1), n = 0

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 0
= $𝟐𝟓𝟎

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (2), n = 1

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟏
= $𝟐𝟒𝟖

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (3), n = 2

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟐
= $𝟐𝟒𝟔

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Solution
• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (4), n = 3
𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟑
= $𝟐𝟒𝟒

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (5), n = 4

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟒
= $𝟐𝟒𝟐

• Net Present Value (NPV) for the 2nd option:

𝑗=𝑛
𝐅𝐕𝑗
𝐍𝐏𝐕 = ෍
1+𝑖 𝑗
𝑗=0

𝐍𝐏𝐕 = 250 + 248 + 246 + 244 + 242 = $𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟎

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Solution
• For the 3rd option to pay $250 @ the end of every month (total of $1250
over the 5 months).

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (1), n = 1

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟏
= $𝟐𝟒𝟖

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (2), n = 2

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟐
= $𝟐𝟒𝟔

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (3), n = 3

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟑
= $𝟐𝟒𝟒

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Solution
• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (4), n = 4
𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟒
= $𝟐𝟒2

• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (5), n = 5

𝐅𝐕 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟓
= $𝟐𝟒0

• Net Present Value (NPV) for the 2nd option:

𝑗=𝑛
𝐅𝐕𝑗
𝐍𝐏𝐕 = ෍
1+𝑖 𝑗
𝑗=0

𝐍𝐏𝐕 = 248 + 246 + 244 + 242 + 240 = $𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟎

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Solution
• For the 4th option to pay $1500 @ the end of the 5 months period.
• Present Value (PV) @ the beginning of month (5), n = 5

𝐅𝐕
𝐏𝐕 =
1+𝑖 𝑛

𝐅𝐕 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐏𝐕 = 1+𝑖 𝑛
= 1+0.08 𝟓
= $𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟏

• Since it is only one period (5 months), so the Net Present Value (NPV)
is the same as the Present Value (PV).

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Solution
Summary & conclusion:
Invetement Scenarios, $
@ the
Now in advance
PV @ i Beginning Of PV @ i @ End Of the PV @ i @ the end of PV @ i
Month for the whole
= 0.8 % the Month = 0.8 % Month (EOM) = 0.8 % the 5 months = 0.8 %
rental period
(BOM)
0 1000 1000 250 250
1 250 248 250 248
2 250 246 250 246
3 250 244 250 244
4 250 242 250 242
5 250 240 1500 1441
NPV 1000 1000 1250 1230 1250 1220 1500 1441

• PV for 2nd option to pay $250 @ the beginning of every month is $1230
• PV for 3rd option to pay $250 @ the end of every month is $1220
• PV for 4th option to pay $1500 @ the end of the 5 months period is $1441
• So, the 1st option to pay $1000 in advance for the whole leasing period is
the lowest Present Value (PV) so it is the best saving option for me.

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Thank
You

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