Fuel cell

What is fuel cell ?

• A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into
electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent.

• Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and
alcohols like methanol are sometimes used.

• Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of
fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity continually for as long
as these inputs are supplied.

• Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative, called,
respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take
place at the electrodes.
Operation of Fuel Cell
• There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently.
But in general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a
chemical reaction strips them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are
now “ionized,” and carry a positive electrical charge. The negatively
charged electrons provide the current through wires to do work. If
alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be
routed through a conversion device called an inverter.

• Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, it there combines with
electrons returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have
travelled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the
oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte to the
anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions.

• The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to
pass between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances
could travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical
reaction.
• Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen
form water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied
with hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate electricity.
Hydrogen availability
Hydrogen is produced in various industrial processes, and as a by
-product in caustic soda and petrochemical industries. The other major
manufacturers of hydrogen are the refineries, which produce hydrogen
from natural gas or naphtha. The hydrogen produced in refineries is
mainly used for hydro-desulphurization of fuels such as diesel and petrol.
The hydrogen plants normally operate at 70 - 73 % capacity utilisation
factors.
Block Diagram of the Component Parts of a Fuel Cell
  notes
• The anode catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.
• The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel.
• A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.55 V to 0.75 V at full rated load.

• Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:

* Activation loss
* Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components )
* Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high
loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).

• To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series
and parallel circuits, where series yields higher voltage, and parallel allows a
higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell
surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell.
  Different types of fuel cells

Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed

hydrogen and oxygen. They generally
use a solution of potassium hydroxide
(chemically, KOH) in water as their
electrolyte. Efficiency is about 70
percent, and operating temperature is 150
to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400
degrees F). Cell output ranges from 300
watts (W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali
cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to
provide both electricity and drinking
water. They require pure hydrogen fuel,
however, and their platinum electrode
catalysts are expensive. And like any
container filled with liquid, they can leak. Alkali fuel cells
 Proton Exchange Membrane fuel
cells (PEMFC) work with a polymer
electrolyte in the form of a thin,
permeable sheet. Efficiency is about
40 to 50 percent, and operating
temperature is about 80 degrees C
(about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs
generally range from 50 to 250 kW.
The solid, flexible electrolyte will
not leak or crack, and these cells
operate at a low enough temperature
to make them suitable for homes and
cars. But their fuels must be purified,
Proton Exchange and a platinum catalyst is used on
Membrane fuel cells both sides of the membrane, raising
(PEMFC) costs.
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard,
ceramic compound of metal (like
calcium or zirconium) oxides
(chemically, O2) as electrolyte.
Efficiency is about 60 percent, and
operating temperatures are about 1,000
degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F).
Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such
high temperatures a reformer is not
required to extract hydrogen from the
fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to
make additional electricity. However,
the high temperature limits applications
of SOFC units and they tend to be Solid Oxide fuel cells
rather large. While solid electrolytes (SOFC)
cannot leak, they can crack.
 Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use
high-temperature compounds of salt (like
sodium or magnesium) carbonates
(chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte.
Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent,
and operating temperature is about 650
degrees C (1,200 degrees F). Units with
output up to 2 megawatts (MW) have been
constructed, and designs exist for units up
to 100 MW. The high temperature limits
damage from carbon monoxide "poisoning"
of the cell and waste heat can be recycled
to make additional electricity. Their nickel
electrode-catalysts are inexpensive
compared to the platinum used in other
cells. But the high temperature also limits
Molten Carbonate fuel cells
the materials and safe uses of MCFCs—
(MCFC)
they would probably be too hot for home
use.
 Operating temp.
Type Unit size ( KW) Applications
(deg. C)
Alkaline Fuel Cell
150-200 5-300 Space and military
(AFC)
Residential, portable laptops,
Proton Exchange cellular phones, video
Membrane Fuel 50-100 50-250 cameras, buses, cars,railway
Cell (PEMFC) locomotives

Phosphoric Acid 5-200(also MW Dedicated power (+heat),

160-210
Fuel Cell (PAFC) sized plants) railways
Molten Carbonate Dispersed power and utility
Fuel Cell (MCFC) 650 100-2000
power

Domestic & commercial

Solid Oxide Fuel 2.5-250 (plants up
800-1000 utility power, mobile
Cell (SOFC) to 100 MW)
applications for railways
Direct Methanol For portable electronic
50-120 0.1- 1
Fuel Cell (DMFC) devices
 Efficiency
The energy conversion efficiency of a fuel cell at NTP is the ratio of the net useful
work done to the heat of the fuel consumed, i.e.

where, W = Ts – H
where, W = net work done by the steady stream on the surrounding,
H = change in enthalpy of the flow stream from inlet to exit,
s = change in entropy
T = constant temperature of atmosphere.

To find the reversible emf of the cell, the reversible electrical work is expressed as
Wrev = Eq
where q is the charge shifted.

For a fuel cell chemical reaction, q can also be expressed as q = NF

where
F = Faraday’s constant = 96500 c/g-mole
N = total number of electrons shifted per molecule of the reactant.
So, Wrev = NFE
The emf of the cell can be expressed as
 Voltage efficiency
Polarization in a fuel cell reduces the output voltage. All the losses in a fuel
cell are converted to waste heat that is released to the atmosphere. The efficiency
of a fuel cell in terms of voltage is expressed as
Thermal efficiency
The voltage efficiency of a fuel cell is generally 65%. However, a large number of
energy converters convert heat energy into electricity. To compare the efficiency
of electrochemical energy converters, i.e. ‘fuel cels’ the heat input may be taken
as the enthalpy change of the reaction(H).

Electrical work = Wel = –nFVo

where,
V0 = open-circuit voltage of the cell
n = number of moles of electrons.
The work output in a fuel cell which operates at the thermodynamic reversible
voltage (which drives the electrons liberated at the anode through the external
load) is equal to Gibbs free energy change (G). Thus,
Wel = G = –nFVo

The thermal efficiency of a fuel cell (not considering the losses associated with the
accessories) is the work output of the system divided by the hest reaction,i.e.

Nth = G /H = –nFVo /H = –ItVo /H

where I is the current and t is the time in seconds for which the current flows.
 Cost
The cost of fuel cells must be reduced to compete with conventional
technologies
Conventional internal combustion engines cost $25-$35/kW; a fuel cell
system would need to cost $30/kW to be competitive
 Key players engaged in FC development in India
• Acme Telepower is a is a large requirement for stationary power in the
telecoms sector in India and the company is currently looking for collaborations
with fuel cell companies.

• Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Mumbai (BARC) is carrying out basic

research on anode, cathode, electrolyte and interconnecter materials for SOFC
technology in conjunction with Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai.

• Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd (BHEL) is working on developing PAFC and

MCFC for distributed power generation. This company is involved to develop a
50 kW stack of PAFC.

• Haldia Institute of Technology, Chemical Engineering Department based in

West Bengal is currently carrying out projects on solar hydrogen production
and the development of PEM fuel cells. They have developed one polymer
electrolyte fuel cell and are currently developing microbial fuel cells.
• Eden Energy, an Australian producer of hydrogen fuels and equipment agreed
to form a joint venture with Larsen & Toubro Ltd (L & T).

• Gas Authority of India Ltd (GAIL) is interested in promoting fuel cells for
applications including industrial and residential power and auxiliary power

• Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore and Central Glass & Ceramic
Research Institute (CGCRI), Kolkata are involved in developing SOFC
systems.

• Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Department Metallurgical and

Materials Engineering have been working on materials for solid oxide fuel
cells since 2003. They have developed SOFC anodes and electrolytes and are
currently developing a complete SOFC unit of 5-10 kW capacity.

• Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Madras (Chennai) in collaboration

with the Southern Petrochemical Industries Corporation Science Foundation
(SPIC-SF) is developing a 250 watt DMFC stack, under a government funded
• Indian Oil Corporation is participating in a project to introduce
hydrogen-CNG blends on a trial basis in existing CNG vehicles. It has
a hydrogen dispensing facility at its R&D centre at Faridabad, which
would be used to fuel the vehicles.

• Indian Railways is currently building a FC powered shunting

locomotive using a 500 kW PEM stack and battery bank for research
purposes.

• Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd is the second largest automotive

manufacturer in India, producing a wide range of utility, light
commercial and agricultural vehicles. The company is currently
working on alternative fuel technologies for automotive applications,
including fuel cell and hybrid vehicles.

• Tata Motors, India’s third largest maker of passenger cars, is

currently in talks with manufacturers of hybrid engines and fuel cells.
• Reva (Reva Electric Car Company). Based in Bangalore, Reva is a joint
venture between the Maini Group India and AEV of California. The
company manufactures India’s only electric (battery-powered) car – the
Reva hatchback.The electric vehicles are exported, as the Reva EV is
comparatively cheaper in the international market. Reva has been working
on fuel cell technologies.
• President Abdul Kalam launched REVA’s fuel cell prototype on Technology
Day in July 2004. However the fuel cell car is in developmental stage and
currently pre-commercial.
  Advantages
• Fuel cell power plants are eco-friendly, noiseless, carry no rotating
components.
• It is a decentralized plant, can be operated in isolation for military installations
and hospitals where noise and smoke are prohibited. Besides, no power is
wasted in transmission and distribution.
• Fuel power sources attain a high efficiency up to 55% whereas conventional
thermal plants operate at 30% efficiency.
• A large degree of modularity is available, with capacity ranging from 5kW to
2 MW.
• There is wide choice of fuel cells. These can be operated with natural gas,
ethanol, methanol, LPG and biogas supplied from local biomass.
• In addition to electric power , fuel cell plants also supply hot water, space heat
and steam. Fuel cell have cogeneration capabilities.
• Fuel cell operate on waste gases at breweries (a factory where beer is made),
also on gas from sewage sludge proving to be the cleanest and most cost-
effective energy conversion technology.
How can Fuel Cell technology be used?

• Micro Power
▫ Consumer electronics could
gain drastically longer battery
power with Fuel Cell
technology
▫ Cell phones can be powered for
30 days without recharging
▫ Laptops can be powered for 20
hours without recharging
 Transportation

▫ All major automakers are working to commercialize a fuel cell car

▫ Automakers and experts speculate that a fuel cell vehicle will be

commercialized by 2010

▫ 50 fuel cell buses are currently in use in North and South

America, Europe, Asia and Australia

▫ Trains, planes, boats, scooters, forklifts and even bicycles are

utilizing fuel cell technology as well
 Toyota FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005

Element One fuel cell vehicle.

Type 212 submarine with fuel cell
propulsion of the German Navy in
dry dock

Mobile Charger
 The world's first certified Fuel Cell Boat
(HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany

Mercedes-Benz (Daimler AG) Citaro fuel

cell bus on Aldwych, London.
 Stationary Power Stations

▫ Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world in
hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools and utility
power plants
▫ Most of these systems are either connected to the electric grid to
provide supplemental power and backup assurance or as a grid-
independent generator for locations that are inaccessible by power lines

 Telecommunications

▫ Due to computers, the Internet and sophisticated communication

networks there is a need for an incredibly reliable power source
▫ Fuel Cells have been proven to be 99.999% reliable