CSIT 413

Wireless Systems and Networks

Session 7 – Radio Frequency Identification

Lecturer: Prof F.A. Katsriku, CS D

Contact Information: fkatsriku@ug.edu.gh

College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education
2014/2015 – 2016/2017
 Goals and Objectives

• At the end of the session students will be able

to:
– Define Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and Near
Field Communication (NFC)
– Explain the need for RFID
– Describe how RFID and NFC work
– List the components of an RFID or NFC system
– Explain the challenges of RFID

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 2

 Session Outline
• The topics to be covered in this session are:
– RFID System Components
– EPCglobal Network Services
– How RFID Works
– Near-Field Communications
– RFID Applications
– RFID and NFC Challenges

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 3

 What is RFID?
• “Wireless” identification system.
• • Tags
• 1. Small transponders - attached to physical
objects.
• 2. May become most pervasive microchip in
history.
• • Readers
• 1. Transceivers - read (write) data from tags.
• 2. Data associated with arbitrary data records.

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 4

 What is RFID?
• EPCglobal Inc. (cont’d)
– Adopts the ISO 18000 series of standards for RFID
• Including the frequencies and PHY and MAC layer specifications
– Concentrates on defining services and higher layer functions of
the standards

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 5

 RFID System Components
• Components required
to implement an RFID
system:
– Tags
– Antennas
– Readers
– Software
– EPCglobal Network
services

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 6

 Electronic Product Code (EPC)
• Electronic Product Code (EPC)
– Standardized numbering scheme
– Can be programmed in a tag and attached to any physical
product
– Unique number or code associated with each item
• So that it can be identified electronically
– EPCs usually represented in hexadecimal notation
– EPC is either 64 or 96 bits long

Figure 11-1 96-bit Electronic Product Code (EPC)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 7
 RFID Tags
• RFID tags
– Commonly known as
transponders
• A combination of transmitter and
responder
– Includes an integrated circuit
• Contains some non-volatile memory
and a simple microprocessor
– Can store data that is transmitted
in response to an interrogation
from a reader
• Device that captures and processes
the data received from the tags

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 8

 RFID Tags
• Basic types of tags
– Passive tags (most common type)
• They are small, can be produced in large quantities at low
cost, and do not require battery power
• Use the electromagnetic energy in the RF waves
– Active tags
• Equipped with a battery
• Can transmit the signal farther away
• Have a limited life due to the battery
• Beacons transmit on a periodic basis

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 9

 RFID Tags

Figure 11-3 A typical RFID passive tag

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 10

 RFID Tags

• Basic types of tags (cont’d)

– Semi-active tags
• Uses a built-in battery to power the circuit only when a
reader first energizes the tag
• Size of the memory in a tag varies between 16 bits
and hundreds of kilobits
• Tags are initially programmed with a unique
identification code obtained from EPCglobal
• Smart labels
– Flexible RFID tag packages

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 11

 RFID Tags
• Smart labels (cont’d)
– Can be read regardless of their position or orientation
• Major advantage of RFID over bar codes
• 1-bit tags
– Passive devices used in retail stores
– Do not contain a unique identification code, a chip, or any
memory
– Simply used to activate an alarm
• Chipless tags (known as RF fibers)
– Use fibers or materials that reflect a portion of the reader’s
signal back
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 12
 RFID Tags
• Sensory tags
– Can be equipped with various kinds of sensors to monitor
and record environmental information
• Can monitor attempts to tamper with a product
• Cost of a tag can vary greatly
– Depending on type and number of tags purchased
• There are four classes of tags
– See table on following slide

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 13

 RFID Tags

Table 11-1 EPCglobal tag specifications

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 14

 Readers
• Readers (also called interrogators)
– Devices that connect with the company’s network and
transfer data obtained from the tags to a computer
– Some readers can also write data onto tags
– Readers that work with passive tags also provide energy
that activates the tags
– Read distance is determined by the size and location of the
tag and the reader antennas
• As well as the amount of power transmitted

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 15

 Readers

Table 11-2 RFID frequencies and common applications

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 16

 Readers

Figure 11-5 LF RFID reader and tag used by cattle farmers to track animals

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 17

 Antennas
• RFID antennas used in tags may be limited in size due
to the dimensions of the tag itself
• Types of antennas
– Linear: offer greater range but less accurate reads
– Circular: have greater read accuracy, especially in
applications in which the orientation of the antenna varies
• Have a more limited range

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 18

 Antennas
• Larger antennas allow the tags to be read at greater
distances
– As frequency increases, the wavelength gets smaller as
does the antenna
• Higher frequency antennas can be made relatively
small
– And still allow the tags to be read at greater distances
• Reader antennas have to be designed for the specific
type of application
• No “typical” style of RFID antenna exists
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 19
 Antennas

Figure 11-7 RFID tags in many shapes and sizes

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 20
 Software
• Type of software depends on the specific RFID
application
• Categories of software components
– System software: used to control hardware functions,
implement communication protocols, and control data
flow between tags and readers
– Middleware: responsible for reformatting data from
readers to business applications
– Business application software: responsible for processing
orders, inventory, shipments, invoices, etc…

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 21

 EPCglobal Network Service
• EPCglobal Network Service
– EPC reduces need for cross-referencing
• Object Name Service (ONS)
– A mechanism for discovering information about a product and
related services
– When a reader gets the EPC from a tag:
• Passes it to the company’s servers, which send it to ONS via
the Internet
• ONS identifies the manufacturer and responds with the URL
of the server where product information is stored

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 22

 EPCglobal Network Service
• EPC Information Services (EPCIS)
– Will enable large organizations to purchase, invoice, and track
product orders over the Internet
– Will eliminate the need to send paper documents by mail or fax
– Similar to the Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) specifications
that many large companies use to complete paperless
transactions

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 23

 EPCglobal Network Service

Figure 11-8 Fundamental EPCglobal system components

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 24

 How RFID Works
• Tags and readers use different transmission mechanisms
in each frequency band
• This section of the text introduces the technical details of
how two of the most common types of passive tags and
readers communicate
– UHF (400 to 900 MHz)
– HF (13.56 MHz)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 25

 PHY Layer
• Coupling
– The connection between a passive tag and reader
• Two types of coupling
– Inductive or magnetic coupling: designed for tags that
touch the surface of the antenna or are inserted in a slot in
reader’s case
– Backscatter coupling: designed for tags that can be read at
distances from 3.3 feet up to 330 feet
• Backscatter is a reflection of radiation

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 26

 PHY Layer
• Communications are always half-duplex (do not
transmit and receive data simultaneously)
– To prevent interference issues
– To allow for environments in which multiple readers are
installed in the same area
• Called dense interrogator environments
• EPCglobal standards also specify the use of:
– Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
– Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
• Generally only used for advanced active tags

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 27

 PHY Layer

Figure 11-9 ASK modulation

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 28

 HF Tag Communication
• HF RFID transmission uses a protocol called Slotted
Terminating Adaptive Collection (STAC)
– Tags reply within randomly selected positions or time
intervals (slots)
– Interrogator transmits signals to mark the beginning and
end of each slot
• Slots are not equal in size
• Number of slots is regulated by the interrogator
– And is always a power of two

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 29

 HF Tag Communication

Figure 11-10 Reply intervals in the STAC protocol

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 30

 UHF Tag Communication
• Digital convergence
– Refers to the power of digital devices to combine voice,
video, and text-processing capabilities
– As well as to be connected to business and home networks
and to the Internet
– Same concept applies to the development of VoIP
networks
• Use the same protocols and media that once only
carried data
– Wireless technologies are used to fulfill many daily
activities
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 31
 UHF Tag Communication
• UHF readers today support Generation 2 (Gen2)
protocols
• The Gen2 protocol defines three techniques for
communication between tags and readers
– First technique: reader selects tags by transmitting a bit
mask that isolates a tag or group of tags
– Second technique: reader can inventory tags by isolating
them using a repetitive process
– Third technique: reader can alternatively access each tag
individually (once the EPC for a particular tag is known to
the system)
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 32
 Tag Identification Layer
• Defines three methods to manage the population of tags
within reach of reader’s signal
– Select
• Interrogator can send a series of commands to select a particular
segment
– Inventory
• Interrogator sends out a series of query commands to get
information from one tag at a time
– Access
• Interrogator can send one or more commands to multiple tags or a
single tag at a time

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 33

 Tag Identification Layer

Figure 11-11 Structure of tag information

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 34

 Tag Identification Layer
• Minimum amount of information contained in a tag’s
memory:
– EPC
– 16-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
– Destroy password
• Destroy password
– Code programmed into the tag during manufacturing
– Once transmitted, tag is permanently disabled and can
never be read or written to again

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 35

 Tag and Reader Collisions
• Manufacturers are creating wireless systems that
enable us to:
– Control lights, heating, ventilation, air conditioning,
drapes, alarms, door locks, and home appliances
– Can control from locations throughout the house or even
from smartphones or tablets outside the home
• Several systems use the ZigBee Alliance
communications protocols and the IEEE 802.15.4
standard

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 36

 Tag and Reader Collisions
• Tags may respond to a reader at the same time
– Would result in collisions
• LF tags and readers do not support any collision
handling mechanism
• Tag collision handling in UHF
– Reader sends a Verify ID command
– Tags reply with EPC, CRC, and destroy password
– Reader proceeds to select a range of tags
– Process repeats until the reader has identified every group
of tags

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 37

 MAC Layer
• Responsible for establishing and communicating the
transmission parameters, such as:
– Transmission bit rate
– Modulation type
– Operating frequency range
– Frequency hop channel sequence
• MAC layer parameters for different types of tags
differ

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 38

 Data Rates
• Amount of data stored in a typical passive RFID tag is
relatively small
• Data transmission rates for the tags are also low
• HF tag readers can read 200 tags per second
– For tags containing just an EPC, the actual rates will likely
be between 500 and 800 tags per second
• UHF specifications define the tag-to-reader data rate
as twice that of the reader-to-tag
– Tag-to-reader data rate can be up to 140.35 Kbps

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 39

 Near-Field Communications
• Near Field Communications (NFC)
– Technology that provides short-range wireless connectivity
between devices such as smartphones and tablet computers
– Based on the ISO 18092 RFID technology standard
– Requires little or no configuration by users
• Devices connect automatically as soon as they are brought to
within a minimum of 1.6 inches of each other
– Able to transfer data between devices or read passive tags at
rates of 106 to 424 Kbps

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 40

 Near-Field Communications
• Examples of NFC uses with handheld devices:
– MasterCard PayPass and Visa payWave transactions
– Electronic discount coupons
– Exchanging business cards, schedules, and maps
– Transferring images, videos, and other files
– Debit card or prepaid card transactions
– Electronic public transport system tickets
– Airline tickets
– Pairing Bluetooth devices without entering a PIN

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 41

 NFC Operation Modes
• Listen mode – initial mode of an NFC device
• Poll mode – probes for other devices within range
• Reader/writer mode – when an NFC device in Poll mode
behaves like an interrogator
• Card emulator mode – when an NFC device in Listen mode
behaves like a smart card
• Initiator mode – when an NFC device in Poll mode changes the
communication protocol to talk to another device
• Target mode – when an NFC device is the target of an initiator
that can only use half-duplex mode

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 42

 NFC Communications
• NFC-capable devices transmit in the 13.56 MHz
unlicensed frequency band
– Modulate the signal using ASK or a combination of ASK and
PSK
– Modulation varies between 10 percent and 100 percent
• To transfer data between two smartphones or tablet
computers, NFC employs the Data Exchange Protocol
(NFC-DEP)

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 43

 NFC Communications

Figure 11-12 Structure of a DEP message

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 44

 RFID Applications
• The potential uses for RFID are practically unlimited
• The following section outlines a few interesting RFID
applications

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 45

 Automobile Security
• Immobilizer
– Car antitheft device
• Vehicle’s ignition key head contains a tiny Class 1
RFID chip
– Transmits in the 135 KHz frequency band
– Only the original key can start the vehicle

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 46

 Health Care
• RFID tags in a patient’s identification bracelet
– Provides vital information that cannot be easily misplaced
• Patient’s admission history
• Blood type
• Medications and prescribed dosages
– Can sound alarm if patient leaves a designated area
• Newborn babies and their mothers can wear bracelets
that contain matching information

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 47

 Transportation and Military
• RFID tags embedded in standard courier packages
– Can speed up and help automate sorting, in addition to
preventing errors
• The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
– Uses RFID tags to control, handle and ship its inventory

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 48

 Sports and Entertainment
• RFID tags are used for monitoring tire pressure in
race cars
– Can be used in transport trucks and interstate buses
• Monitoring participants in marathons and triathlons
is another common use for RFID tags
• Passive tags can be installed inside golf balls
– In case they are lost during a game
• In 2004, the Golden Globe awards used RFID tags in
the event invitations

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 49

 People Monitoring, Crowds, and
Access
• Parents of children wearing special bracelets
containing RFID tags
– Can instantly locate their kids if they become separated
• RFID-tagged concert and sports event tickets can
simplify the jobs of security personnel

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 50

 Pharmaceuticals
• Pharmaceutical industry is vulnerable to counterfeit
drugs
– RFID tags can help track products
– Tracking can help isolate the exact location of
counterfeiting activity
• Tags in over-the-counter and prescription medication
– Allow vision-impaired people using a special device to
listen to a description of their drugs and dosages

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 51

 RFID and NFC Challenges
• RFID and NFC technologies face some challenges
• You will learn about some of these challenges in the
following section

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 52

 RFID Impact on Corporate Networks
• One of the major challenges for the implementation
of RFID systems:
– The impact of the volume of data on a company’s network
– RFID systems are usually implemented so that inventory
can be counted by simply activating the tags
• Some systems may direct readers to interrogate all
RFID tags every 5 minutes or so
– This scanning can add a lot of traffic to a network

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 53

 Network Availability in RFID
• Network availability is a serious factor in the store’s
ability to serve its customers
– To increase service and reduce costs, greater network
bandwidth must be available
• And the network must be reliable

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 54

 Storage Requirements for RFID
• • The huge volume of data that can be generated by
RFID systems significantly increases the need to store
information accurately and reliably
– Large banks and corporations have to archive tremendous
amounts of historical data
– New laws designed to protect investors and consumers
require companies to accumulate and store even more
information

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 55

 Device Management
• Even without RFID in place, businesses find it a
challenge to manage the huge numbers of devices on
their networks
• The need to remotely monitor and manage
RFIDreaders from a central location becomes a
critical factor
– Add to this the task of managing and tracking millions of
RFID tags

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 56

 Security Considerations for RFID and
NFC
• Use of RFID devices has generated a large number of
security and privacy concerns
– In the United States, in particular, the concerns are centered on
privacy
• Security related to RFID readers falls under the wired
network security policy
– Reader-to-tag communications have the same vulnerabilities as
any wireless network
• Passive tags do not support authorization or encryption
security methods

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 57

 Security Considerations for RFID and
NFC
• Data in tags can be locked
– Require a password for the tag to be used again
• Blocker tag
– Device that can be used to simulate the presence of a virtually
infinite number of tags
– Can disable unauthorized readers from accessing the
information from a selective group of tags

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 58

 Summary
• Radio frequency identification (RFID) stores
information in electronic tags
• Standards being published by EPCglobal Inc. will
allow RFID to be used worldwide
• RFID systems components: electronic tags, readers,
antennas, software, and EPCglobal network services
• RFID tags are also known as transponders
• Tags can be produced in flexible packages called
smart labels

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 59

 Summary
• 1-bit tags are passive devices used in retail stores to
prevent theft
• Sensory tags are equipped with thermal, smoke, or
other type of sensors
• A reader or interrogator communicates with both the
tags and the corporate network
• Two types of tag antennas: linear and circular
• RFID software includes system software, middleware,
and business applications

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 60

 Summary
• RFID has a multitude of uses ranging from healthcare to
entertainment-related applications
• Coupling: connection between a reader and a tag
• In HF, the tags use time slots to communicate with the
reader
• RFID has the potential for significantly increasing the
amount of traffic and storage requirements
• NFC allows enabled devices to communicate in short
distances
• There are many security and privacy concerns with RFID
and NFC
Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 61
 References
• All materials in this slide are the sole property of Cengage
Learning 2014
• Chapter 11:Olenewa J. L. (2014). Guide to Wireless Communications. (3rd ed.), Boston, MA
02210, USA: Course Technology
• Hucaby D. (2016). CCNA Wireless 200-355 Official Cert Guide. (1st ed.) Cisco Press .
• Chapter 11: Ciampa M. (2002). Guide to Wireless Communications. (1st ed.), Thomson
Course Technology.

Dr Jamal-Deen Abdulai, CSD Slide 62