Ship Maneuvering

Technical
Reference

Panama Canal Gatun

Lock
Shiphandling

SHIP TERMINOLOGY
Shiphandling

SHIP TERMINOLOGY
• Bow • Superstructure • Shaft
• Stem • Pilothouse • Propeller
• Forecastle • Mast • Rudder
• Hawsepipe • Yardarm • Stern
• Weather • Truck • Transom
decks • Stack • Waterline
• Draft • Keel
• Freeboa
rd
 Lesson Contents
• Shiphandling Theory
• Laws of Motion
• Controllable Forces
• Uncontrollable Forces

• Shiphandling
• Terminology
• Ground Tackle
• Getting Underway
• Single Screw Characteristics
• Twin Screw Characteristics
• Tug Handling
• Man Overboard Recovery
Shiphandling Theory: Motion
• Various forces acting on the ship create
movement.
• Newton’s Laws of Motion
1.Unless acted upon by an outside force:
• An object in motion tends to stay in motion.
• An object at rest tends to stay at rest.
2.The resulting motion of an object is the
sum of all forces acting on it.
3.Every action has an equal and opposite
reaction.
 ̎

What is Vessel Handling?

Vessel handling is based on the basic knowledge that a vessel
floats in the water and returns to its original position after a list.

It is maneuvered with the assistance of the rudder, main

engine(s) and other auxiliary equipment, using knowledge of the
rolling, pitching and yawing characteristics of the vessel in waves.

In handling the vessel it is necessary to consider the effects of

environmental conditions while controlling the position of the
vessel, its attitude, and its speed, to move the vessel in the designed
direction in a safe and efficient manner, and to stop at the intended
position.
(Theory and Practice of Ship Handling, Kinzo Inoue,
Honorary Professor, Kobe University).
Ship Handling and Maneuvering
Ship Handling and Maneuvering is
defined as the art of proper control of a
ship while underway, especially in
harbors, around docks and piers. It is one of
the skills that any ship handler finds
very satisfying when well accomplished.

The most basic thing to be understood in

ship handling is to know and anticipate
how a ship behaves under all
circumstances and what orders should be
given in order to make the ship behave and
move exactly the way you want her to. The
difference between the ships’ heading and
the actual direction of movement of the
ship should also be constantly attended to
as this is essentially important at slow
speeds and when there are wind and
current.
 ̏

Rolling, Pitching and Environmental conditions

Vessel
with Yawing *Geography (existence of shallow areas and
Stability characteristics in water
waves depth etc.)
* Facilities (port facilities)
* Navigation (buoys, fishing boats, marine
Vessel
Means traffic etc.)
maneuverability * Social (regulations, navigation regulations
Rudder,
engine, etc.)
main
thrusters, * Nature (wind, tidal flows, visibility, waves
anchors, mooring etc.)
lines, tugs etc.
Control of vessel position,
attitude, and speed for safe and
Ship efficient
Navigato * movement in the
r required direction
* stopping at the required
position

Operate vesselas
described
 Shiphandling Theory: Forces
• Controllable • Uncontrollable
• Propeller • Wind
• Rudder • Current/Tides
• Bow Thruster/APU • Seas
• Mooring Lines • Water Depth
• Anchors
• Tugs
Controllable
Forces
Controllable Forces

Propellers
• Provides the most important source of
force on a ship.
• (Usually) makes ship go forward.
• Most ships have 2 propellers.
• Aircraft carriers / Patrol Craft have 4.
• Frigates have 1.
Controllable Forces

Propellers
• Forces resulting from the use of the
propellers:
• Forward (or reverse) thrust
• Side Force
Controllable Forces

Propeller Thrust
• A result of the propeller spinning on its
shaft.

• Caused by a pressure differential

between the opposite sides of the
propeller blade.
Controllable Forces

Propeller Thrust

Resulting Thrust

Low Pressure Water Flow

Propeller
Blade
High Pressure
Rotation of
propeller blade
Controllable Forces

Controlling Propeller Thrust

• Depends on type of propellers
• Fixed Pitch Propellers
• Controllable Pitch Propellers
Controllable Forces

Controllable Pitch Propellers

• Found on all gas turbine ships and
some diesel amphibs

• 0 - 12 kts
• shaft rotates at 55 RPM
• thrust (speed) controlled by changing the
pitch of the propeller blade
Controllable Forces

Controllable Pitch Propellers

• >12 kts
• thrust controlled by changing the speed
(RPM) of the shaft.

• The shaft always spins in same

direction whether going forward or
backward.
Controllable Forces

Fixed Pitch Propellers

• Found on steam ships (carriers, subs,
amphibs)

• Cannot change pitch of propeller

• Thrust (speed) controlled by changing

speed of the shaft

• To go backwards, must stop shaft and

spin the shaft in the opposite direction.
Controllable Forces

Side Force
• Causes stern to move sideways in the
direction of propeller rotation.

Propeller
Controllable Forces
Side Force
Side Side
Force Force

Single Screw Astern

Going Ahead Ahead Twin
Screw

Side
Force
Bottom
Controllable Forces

Screw Current
• Consists of two parts
• Suction Current - going into the propeller
• Discharge Current (Prop Wash)- comes out
of the propeller

Suction Current Discharge Current

Acts on Rudder

Propeller
Controllable Forces

Rudders
• Used to control ship’s heading by
moving the stern.

• To have an effect, must have a flow of

water across the rudder.

• Normally this flow of water is the

discharge current of the screw.
Controllable Forces

Rudder
Water
• Acts a wing Flow

HLiogwh HLiogwh
Pressssure Area Pressssuure Area
Rudder Rudder
Force Force
Controllable Forces

Propellers / Rudders
• Primary means of controlling the stern

Thrust

Side Force

Rudder Force
Pivot point concept
Controllable Forces

Pivot Point
• Imaginary point on the ship’s centerline
about which the ship pivots

Pivot Point
Thrust
Side Force
Rudder Force
 The ship’s pivot point

• The turning effect of a vessel will take effect about the ship’s ‘pivot point’
and this position, with the average design vessel, lies at about the ship’s
Centre of Gravity, which is generally nearly amidships (assuming the vessel
is on even keel in calm water conditions).
• As the ship moves forward under engine power, the pivot point will be
caused to move forward with the momentum on the vessel. If the water does
not exert resistance on the hull the pivot point would assume a position in
the bow region. However, practically the pivot point moves to a position
approximately 0.25 of the ships length (L) from the forward position.
• Similarly, if the vessel is moved astern, the stern motion would cause the
Pivot Point to move aft and adopt a new position approximately 0.25 of the
ship’s length from the right aft position. If the turning motion of the vessel is
considered, with use of the rudder, while the vessel is moved ahead by
engines, it can be seen that the pivot point will follow the arc of the turn.
• If the turning motion of the vessel is considered, with use of the rudder,
while the vessel is moved ahead by engines, it can be seen that the pivot
point will follow the arc of the turn.
• The combined forces of water resistance, forward of the pivot point and the
opposing turning forces from the rudder, aft of the pivot point, cause a
‘couple effect’ to take place. The resultant turning motion on the vessel sees
the pivot point following the arc of the turn.
Pivot point means the center of any rotational system. It is very vital to know the location
of
the pivot point as the ship handling depends greatly on knowing the location of the same.
The pivot point is not a fixed point. It changes the location depending on the below
factors;-

▪ When the vessel is at rest or static, the pivot point is almost the same as that of the
center
of Gravity, which is denoted by G.

▪ When the vessel moves forward, the position of pivot point shifts forward. The new
pivot
point will be about 1/4th of the Length of the vessel from the forward.
▪ When the vessel moves astern, the position of the pivot point shifts towards the stern.
The
new pivot point will be about 1/4th of the Length of the vessel from the stern.

• while the vessel moves astern, the pivot point moves towards the stern. This shift of the
pivot point can be made to advantage. Let's assume that both the tugs are pulling with
the same force. Since the pivot point has shifted more towards the stern, the effect of the
Forward tug will be increased automatically. The reason being that the turning lever for
the Forward tug has been increased, because of the shift of the pivot point. Therefore the
action of the forward tug will be dominant over the stern tug. Therefore the bow will
move to PORT.
 The pivot point at anchor

• It should be noted that when the vessel goes to anchor the

pivot point moves right forward and effectively holds the bow
in one position.
• Any forces acting on the hull, such as from wind or currents,
would
cause the vessel to move about the hawse pipe position.
• Use of the rudder can however, be employed when at anchor,
to provide a ‘sheer’ to the vessel, which could be a useful
action to angle the length of the vessel away from localized
dangers.
Controllable Forces

Pivot Point

Ship twisting with no way on.

Controllable Forces

Pivot Point
• Usually located 1/3 the length of the
ship from the bow. (Just behind the
bridge.)

• Pivot point is not fixed

Controllable Forces
Forces which affect
location of the Pivot Point
• Headway or Sternway
• Ship’s Speed

• Anchors
• Mooring Lines
• Tugs
Uncontrollable Forces

Wind
• Acts on the sail area of the ship
• Exposed superstructure
• Hull structure

• Ships tend to back into the wind

• 30kts of wind = 1kts of current
Current
• Acts on the underwater part of the ship.
• Creates set and drift.
Uncontrollable Forces

Depth of Water
• Squat - Occurs a high speeds
• bow of a ship rides up onto the bow wave
• stern of a ship tends to sink

• Shallow water effects.

Shiphandling

SHIP TERMINOLOGY
• Bow • Superstructure • Shaft
• Stem • Pilothouse • Propeller
• Forecastle • Mast • Rudder
• Hawsepipe • Yardarm • Stern
• Weather • Truck • Transom
decks • Stack • Waterline
• Draft • Keel
• Freeboa
rd
Shiphandling: Terms

• Headway
• moving forward thru the water
• Sternway
• moving backwards thru the water
• Bare Steerageway
• the minimum speed a ship can proceed
and still maintain course using the rudders
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines
Sequence:
• Stand by lines • Slack
• Take in the slack • Ease
• Take a strain • Take to the capstain
Commands:

• Heave around • Double up

• Avast heaving • Single up
• Hold • Take in
• Check
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Safety
• Battle dress
• Snap back zone
• Tugs
• Pilots ladder
 Lesson Contents
• Shiphandling Theory
• Laws of Motion
• Controllable Forces
• Uncontrollable Forces

• Shiphandling
• Terminology
• Ground Tackle
• Getting Underway
• Single Screw Characteristics
• Twin Screw Characteristics
• Tug Handling
• Man Overboard Recovery
Shiphandling Theory: Motion
• Various forces acting on the ship create
movement.
• Newton’s Laws of Motion
1.Unless acted upon by an outside force:
• An object in motion tends to stay in motion.
• An object at rest tends to stay at rest.
2.The resulting motion of an object is the
sum of all forces acting on it.
3.Every action has an equal and opposite
reaction.
 Shiphandling Theory: Forces
• Uncontrollable
• Controllable • Wind
• Propeller • Current/Tides
• Rudder • Seas
• Bow Thruster/APU • Water Depth
• Mooring Lines
• Anchors
• Tugs
Controllable
Forces
Controllable Forces

Propellers
• Provides the most important source of
force on a ship.
• (Usually) makes ship go forward.
• Most ships have 2 propellers.
• Aircraft carriers / Patrol Craft have 4.
• Frigates have 1.
Controllable Forces

Propellers
• Forces resulting from the use of the
propellers:
• Forward (or reverse) thrust
• Side Force
Controllable Forces

Propeller Thrust
• A result of the propeller spinning on its
shaft.

• Caused by a pressure differential

between the opposite sides of the
propeller blade.
 Propeller Thrust
Controllable Forces

Resulting Thrust

Low Pressure Water Flow

Propeller
Blade
High Pressure
Rotation of
propeller blade
Controllable Forces

Controlling Propeller Thrust

• Depends on type of propellers
• Fixed Pitch Propellers
• Controllable Pitch Propellers
Controllable Forces

Controllable Pitch Propellers

• Found on all gas turbine ships and
some diesel amphibs

• 0 - 12 kts
• shaft rotates at 55 RPM
• thrust (speed) controlled by changing the
pitch of the propeller blade
Controllable Forces

Controllable Pitch Propellers

• >12 kts
• thrust controlled by changing the speed
(RPM) of the shaft.

• The shaft always spins in same

direction whether going forward or
backward.
Controllable Forces
Fixed Pitch Propellers
• Found on steam ships (carriers, subs,
amphibs)

• Cannot change pitch of propeller

• Thrust (speed) controlled by changing

speed of the shaft

• To go backwards, must stop shaft and

spin the shaft in the opposite direction.
Controllable Forces

Side Force
• Causes stern to move sideways in the
direction of propeller rotation.

Propeller
Controllable Forces
Side Force
Side Side
Force Force

Single Screw Astern

Going Ahead Ahead Twin
Screw

Side
Force
Bottom
Controllable Forces

Screw Current
• Consists of two parts
• Suction Current - going into the propeller
• Discharge Current (Prop Wash)- comes out
of the propeller

Suction Current Discharge Current

Acts on Rudder

Propeller
Controllable Forces

Rudders
• Used to control ship’s heading by
moving the stern.

• To have an effect, must have a flow of

water across the rudder.

• Normally this flow of water is the

discharge current of the screw.
Controllable Forces

• Acts a wing Rudder Water

Flow

Hliog wh Pressssure Area HLiogwh Pressssuure

Area
Rudder Rudder
Force Force
Controllable Forces

Propellers / Rudders
• Primary means of controlling the stern

Thrust

Side Force

Rudder Force
Controllable Forces

Pivot Point
• Imaginary point on the ship’s centerline
about which the ship pivots

Pivot Point
Thrust
Side Force
Rudder Force
Controllable Forces

Pivot Point

Ship twisting with no way on.

Controllable Forces

Pivot Point
• Usually located 1/3 the length of the
ship from the bow. (Just behind the
bridge.)

• Pivot point is not fixed

Controllable Forces
Forces which affect
location of the Pivot Point
• Headway or Sternway
• Ship’s Speed

• Anchors
• Mooring Lines
• Tugs
Internal and External Factors
Internal Factors/Forces
These are the factors or forces INSIDE the ship that affects how the
vessel behaves or performs during maneuvering, some examples are:
Engine Power, Specification of Propeller and Rudder, Mooring Lines
and Anchor, Thrusters and Vessel Speed.

External Factors/Forces
These are the factors or forces that happens OUTSIDE the ship
that affects the maneuvering of the vessel while underway,
approaching a port or being docked, some examples are:
Tide, A sudden change in wind velocity and direction (gust), Set and
drift, The proximity of other vessels, The depth of harbors.
 External Factors/forces

● Tide - At low tide, the water will

be too shallow for the ship to move
and she will hit the bottom of the
harbor. This means that ships
need to schedule their arrival at
or departure from some ports
around the high tides at those
ports. Ships' mooring lines tighten
as the tide rises, and slacken
when the tide goes out. High tides
help in navigation. They raise the
water level close to the shores.
This helps the ships to arrive
at harbor more easily.
● A sudden change in
wind velocity and direction
(gust) - The Wind Force will
develop a sideways force on
the vessel, away from the
exposed side. Making
Headway with Stern to Wind,
the vessel loses “course
stability” and is difficult to
steer, this effect is greater
when there is also a following
Sea or Swell.
● Set and drift - Ignoring set
and drift can cause a mariner
to get off their desired
course, sometimes by hundreds
of miles. A mariner needs to
be able to steer the ship and
for the effects of set and drift
compensate
upon their vessel
underway. while
The actual course a
vessel travels is referred to as
the course over the ground.
●
The proximity
of other vessels
● The of harbors -
depth
Shallow water affects the
maneuverability of ships
considerably. The limited
water depth will change the
pressure distribution
around the vessel and
lead to an increase
in hydrodynamic forces.
 Internal Factors/forces under the control of the
Shiphandler
● Engine - It can be
power slow down
challenging to while This is
keeping
reduction in propeller
because
speed
control. water flow over the rudder
reduces
and the rudder becomes less
effective. The conventional
approach for halting is to put
engines astern. The ship will be
less responsive to steering when a
propeller is rotating astern because
the water flow across the rudder
is disrupted. In addition, there is
the disruptive effect of transverse
thrust.
● Speed The turning circle
-
therefore will
considerable not margin
increase with
by any an
increase in speed, because the
steering effect is increased over the
same period. Generally speaking,
higher speeds mean more force
on the rudder but also more
momentum. So, the head will turn
faster, but the ship will travel farther
along its previous track. The higher
momentum also means more
heeling.
● Effect of the type of propeller -
Propeller affects every phase
of performance - handling,
comfort,
riding, speed, acceleration,
engine life, fuel economy
safety. determining and In
performance, propellers boat
second in importance only are to
the power available from the
engine itself. Without the
propeller's thrust, nothing
happens.
● Rudder movement and type -
The rudder acts as a hydrofoil.
By itself, it is a passive
instrument and relies on
water passing over it to give
it ‘lift’. Rudders are placed at
the stern of a ship for this
reason and to take advantage
of the forward pivot point,
which enhances the effect.
● Thrusters The thruster takes
-
suction from one side and throws
it out at the other side of
the vessel, thus moving the
ship in the opposite direction.
This can be operated in
both the directions, i.e., port
to starboard and starboard to
port. The bow thrusters are
placed below the waterline of
the ship.
● Anchors and mooring lines -
The purpose of an anchor is to keep a
ship safe and secure at a desired
location or to help control the ship
during bad weather. However, to
accomplish these vital purposes, just
having an anchor is not enough. The
anchor must be solid, dependable, and
used properly at the right time and
place. On the other hand, an anchor
mooring fixes a vessel's position
relative to a point on the bottom of a
waterway without connecting the
vessel to shore. As a verb, mooring refers
to the act of attaching a vessel to
a mooring.
● Tugboats - Tugboats are
small, powerful boats
capable of steering large
ships by pulling or pushing
them. They are used to
assist these ships in places
where they are unable
to maneuver
themselves, such as
narrow water channels
and ports.
Uncontrollable Forces

Wind
• Acts on the sail area of the ship
• Exposed superstructure
• Hull structure

• Ships tend to back into the wind

• 30kts of wind = 1kts of current
Current
• Acts on the underwater part of the ship.
• Creates set and drift.
Uncontrollable Forces

Depth of Water
• Squat - Occurs a high speeds
• bow of a ship rides up onto the bow wave
• stern of a ship tends to sink

• Shallow water effects.

Three Types of Basic Ship
Motion 1. Longitudinal motion (forward or astern).
2. Lateral motion (sideways).
3. Rotational or turning motion.
SHIP FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANUEVERING
● Handling characteristics will vary from ship type to ship
type and from ship to ship. Handling qualities are
determined by ship design, which in turn depends on
the ship’s intended function. Typically, design ratios,
such as a ship’s length to its beam, determine its
willingness to turn.

● However, desirable handling qualities are achieved

only when there is a balance between directional
stability and directional instability.
 Other Variable factors affecting ship
handling.

● Human factor – A delay in time

between your given order and the
execution of the order will affect how
you intend to move your ship. This
is caused by human factors
because the individuals you are
ordering may have different
responses depending on their training
and ability to perform the job, or that
orders have to be relayed by an
officer to the helmsman, which is a
bad practice that should be avoided
so that the conning officer should be
able to give his orders directly to
the helmsman.
● Wind and current are usually associated as both being
forces not under control of the shiphandler. The
two forces have, however, a different effect on the
ship because of the difference in nature of the two.
When the ship is affected by wind alone and moves
through the water, the hull meets underwater resistance.
When, on the other hand, the ship’s motion originates
from current, there is practically no resistance of the
above-water area to air. As water is eight hundred
level atmosphere,
times denser current must, by
than sea nature,
considerably stronger effect than have
loaded ships. wind, especially on
 OCEAN CURRENT

Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional

movement of seawater driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis
Effect), and water density. Ocean water moves in two
directions: horizontally and vertically.
movements are Horizontal
referred to as currents, while
verticalupwellings or downwelling.
changes are called

Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting

warm water and precipitation from the equator toward
the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics.
●
Current has a direct effect on the
under- water part of the ship and an
indirect ef- fect expressed in
momentum after the ship alters course
or comes out of a cur- rent, when the
ship will carry momentum in the
direction of the current that the ship
was previously subjected to.
 Effect of Wind and Current
● Whereas the effect of wind on the ship has to be
considered with respect to the pivot point, current
affects a freely moving ship as a whole and
consequently its effect is on the center of gravity.
However, when we try to keep the ship stationary relative
to the ground, we must arrest the ship’s movement and
let the ship make speed through the water contrary to
the current, in which case the ship meets underwater
resistance.

● All freely moving ships, not being subjected to wind and

dead in the water, have the same speed as the current,
whether the ships are big or small, loaded or light. Ships
not freely moving, as ships at anchor or moored, are
subjected to pressure exerted by the current, pressure
which is directly proportionate to the exposed underwater
area and to the square of the current velocity.
● In a strong tide we see that ships at
anchor, or moored to a single point, are
heading into the tide; when it is nearly
slack water ballasted ships will be more
affected by wind while the loaded
tankers still remain heading into the tide.

● When we approach the monobuoy with

a ballasted tanker in wind and tide
condition, the direction of the loaded
tankers, moored on single points
nearby, gives us an indication of the
direction of the current. However, the
heading of the ballasted ship, after
having been tied up to the buoy,
may be quite different from the heading
of the loaded ship
Wind
Vessels such as Container and Ro-Ro Ships have large
freeboard and are thus more affected by winds. This
exposed area of the ship is also known as windage area as
the effect of wind is more prominent over it.

The wind effect on the same ship will be different at

different places, depending upon the draught condition of the
ship. A wind with force of 3-4 on the Beaufort scale will have
similar effect in light condition as with wind force of 7-8 when the
ship is down to her marks.

When ship is at slow speeds during maneuvering or near to the

coast, wind direction is easy to find; but this is not the case when
out at high sea. The direction of the wind perceived
when standing on deck is its relative direction. This is the
resultant of the true direction of the wind and the course steered
by the ship.
 EFFECT OF WIND

● Needless to say, with no tug assistance, it is wise to

get this area of ship handling right first time and also
appreciate what the limits are.
Navigators can use the wind:

1. As a good brake
2. As a device for making a tight turn.
3. To maneuver comparatively easily as long as the wind remains
about two to three points on the bow.
 Vessel Stopped

● we have a ship on even keel, stopped dead in

the water. It has the familiar all aft
accommodation and we will assume, at this
stage, that the wind is roughly on the beam.
● Whilst the large area of superstructure and
funnel offer a considerable cross-section to the
wind, it is also necessary to take into account the
area of freeboard from forward of the bridge to the
bow. On a VLCC this could be an area as long as
280 x 10 meters.
● The center of effort of the wind (W) is thus
acting upon the combination of these two areas
and is much further forward than is sometimes
expected. This now needs to be compared with the
underwater profile of the ship and the position of
the pivot point (P).
● With the ship initially stopped in the water this
was seen to be close to amidships. The center of
effort of the wind (W) and the pivot point (P) are
thus quite close together and therefore do not
create a turning influence upon the ship.
Although it will vary slightly from ship to ship,
generally speaking, most will lay stopped with
the wind just forward or just abaft the beam.
 Vessel Making Headway
● When the same ship is making headway,
the shift of the pivot point upsets the
previous balance attained whilst stopped,
figure 2. With the wind on the beam, the
center of effort of the wind remains where it
is but the pivot point moves forward. This
creates a substantial turning lever between
P and W and, depending on wind strength,
the ship will develop a swing of the bow into
the wind.
● At lower speeds the pivot point shifts even
further forward, thereby improving the wind's
turning lever and effect. When approaching a
berth with the wind upon or abaft the beam
that as speed is reduced the effect of
the wind gets progressively greater and
requires considerable corrective action.
● When approaching a berth or a buoy with
the wind dead ahead and the ship on an
even keel such an approach should be
easily controlled. Even at very low speeds
the ship is stable and will wish to stay with the
wind ahead until stopped.
 Vessel Making Sternway
● The effect of the wind on a ship making sternway is
generally more complex and less predictable. In part this
is due to the additional complication of transverse thrust
when associated with single screw ships.
● Figure 3, we have already seen that with sternway the
pivot point moves aft to a position approximately 1/4
L from the stern. Assuming that the centre of effort (W)
remains in the same position, with the wind still on the
beam, the shift of pivot point (P) has now created a totally
different turning lever (WP). This will now cause the stern to
swing into the wind.
● Some caution is necessary, however, as the turning
lever can be quite small and the effect disappointing,
particularly on even keel. In such cases, the stern may only
partially seek the wind, with the ship making sternway
'flopped' across the wind. This situation is not helped
by the center of effort (W) moving aft as the wind
comes round onto the quarter. This, in turn, tends to reduce
the magnitude of the turning lever WP.
● The other complicating factor is transverse thrust. If the
wind is on the port beam, there is every likelihood that
the transverse thrust and effect of wind will combine
and indeed take the stern smartly into the wind. If,
however, the wind is on the starboard beam, it can be seen
that transverse thrust and effect of wind oppose each other.
Which force wins the day is therefore very much
dependent upon wind strength versus stern power,
unless you know the ship exceptionally well, there may
be no guarantee as to which way the stern will swing when
backing.
 Trim and Headway

● So far we have only considered a ship on even

keel. A large trim by the stern may change
the ship's wind handling characteristics quite
substantially.
● Figure 4 shows the same ship, but this
time in ballast and trimmed by the stern. The
increase in freeboard forward has moved W
forward and very close to P. With the
turning lever thus reduced the ship is not so
inclined to run up into the wind with
headway, preferring instead to fall off, or
lay across the wind. Because the ship is
difficult to keep head to wind, some pilots
will not accept a ship that has an
excessive trim by the stern, particularly with
regards SBM operations.
 Vessel Head to Wind with
Headway
● The middle diagram in Figure 6 shows a vessel making
Headway through the water, and Heading directly into
the Wind. W is now well forward of amidships, and in fact
very close to P; the wind is exerting no turning
moment, or sideways force, on the vessel. A
comparatively small change in relative wind direction
(either by alteration of course, or wind fluctuation), will
place the wind on the vessel's bow; the whole of one
side of the vessel will now be exposed to the wind, and
W will move aft as shown in the side diagrams of Figure
6. The following effects will now be experienced:-
● a) The Turning Force will now develop a turning
moment about P, tending to turn the vessel into the wind
again.
● b) The Wind Force will also develop a sideways force
on the vessel, away from the exposed side.
● Head to Wind therefore, the vessel is "course
stable", provided that she maintains Headway through the
water.
● If the ship has a large Trim by the stern W will be
further forward, with a reduction, or even loss, of "course
stability". This can sometimes result in a rapid and
violent loss of control.
 Vessel Head to Wind with
Sternway.
● Consider the situation when our vessel remains Head to
Wind, but now starts to make Sternway through the
water. W remains forward, whilst P has moved aft, as
shown in the middle diagram of figure 7: the wind is
exerting no turning moment or sideways force.
● A comparatively small change in the relative direction of the
wind will move W aft, as shown in the side diagrams of
Figure 7: however P remains aft of W. The following
effects will now be experienced:-
● a) The Wind Force will develop a strong turning moment
about P, tending to turn the vessel's bow further away from
the wind.
● b) The Wind Force will develop a sideways force on the
vessel, away from the exposed side.
● Head to Wind, as soon as the vessel starts to make
Sternway through the water, she loses "course stability"
and the bow will pay off away from the wind, sometimes
quite rapidly.
● If the ship has a large Trim by the stern W may move
further forward, perhaps quickly, and the loss of
"courses stability" is even more pronounced. This can
sometimes result in a rapid and violent loss of control.
 Vessel Stern to Wind with
Headway
● The middle diagram of figure 8 shows a vessel making
Headway through the water, and with the Wind directly
Astern. P is forward, a long distance from W, which is well
aft. A comparatively small change in relative wind
direction will move W forwards as shown in the side
diagrams of Figure 8: however W is still some distance
abaft P. The following effects will now be experienced:-
● a) The Wind Force will develop a strong turning
moment about P, tending to turn the vessel's Stern
further away from the Wind.
● b) The Wind Force will develop a sideways force on
the vessel, away from the exposed side.
● Making Headway with Stern to Wind, the vessel
loses "course stability" and is difficult to steer, this effect is
greater when there is also a following Sea or Swell.
● If the ship has a large Trim by the Stern, W may move
further forward, and loss of "course stability" may
be generally less pronounced, but still a potential danger.
 Vessel Stern to Wind making Sternway

● The middle diagram of Figure 9 shows a

vessel making Sternway through the water,
and with the Wind directly Astern. P has
moved aft, fairly close to W, which remains
even further aft. A change in relative wind
direction will eventually move W forward of
P, as shown in the side diagrams of Figure
9, with the following effects:-
● a) The Wind Force will develop a turning
moment about P, tending to turn the vessel's
Stern back into the Wind.
● b) The Wind Force will develop a sideways
force on the vessel, away from the exposed
side.
● Making Sternway through the water, with Stern
to Wind, the vessel is again "course stable".
● If the ship has a large Trim by the Stern
W may move further forward, generally
improving "course stability"; however with
such a Trim, there is always the possibility of
an unpredictable loss of control.
 Wind force
● Wind force depends on- windage,
wind velocity (wind pressure),
the angle between apparent
wind, and heading. Wind
pressure is proportional to wind
velocity squared.
● The Centre of wind pressure
depends on the distribution of
windage alongside the ship.
 Ship in a beam wind
● Ship stopped
● The wind force is large.
● There is no longitudinal component.
● The behavior of the ship depends on
the center of wind pressure, which
could be in front of or behind the point
of application of transverse resistance
force (pivot point). This point is
approximately at midship.
● Ship is drifting and turning either way,
depending on the
relative position of these points.
 Ship with headway

● Point of application of wind force is

behind the pivot point.
● Ship has tendency to
swing towards the wind line.
 Ship with sternway
● Point of application of wind
force is in front of the pivot
point.
● Ship has tendency to
swing
out of the wind line.
 Wind from bow quarter

● Ship with headway

● The point of application of
wind force is behind the pivot point.
● The ship has a tendency to
swing
towards the wind line.
 Ship with sternway
●
Point of application
of wind force is behind
the pivot point.
●
Ship has tendency to
swing towards the
line. wind
QUESTION:
WHAT ARE
THE
FORCES
INA TURN?
Turning circle and dynamic
stability
 Course keeping ability is related to
dynamic stability on straight course.

 Ships can be dynamically stable

or dynamically unstable

 Ship is dynamically stable if after small

disturbance will remain on the new
straight course slightly deviated from the
previous one without using rudder.
 Dynamically unstable ship will
make a turning circle with rudder amidships

 Dynamically unstable ships are more difficult to

handle, and if the amount of dynamical instability
is large, they might be dangerous

• There is, however, no force that can bring

the ship to the original course without
using rudder.
ILLUSTRATE DIRECTIONALLY STABLE AND DIRECTIONALLY
UNSTABLE SHIP
ILLUSTRATE DRIFT ANGLE AND STATE IMO CRITERIA
FOR TACTICAL DIAMETER AND ADVANCE
WHAT IS INITIAL TURNING ABILITY OF A
SHIP AND IMO CRITERIA

 Initial turning test

 Initial turning ability is a measure of the
reaction of the ship to small angle of rudder; Is
defined by the distance travelled before
realizing certain
heading deviation when rudder
is applied.
• Ship is moving along the curvilinear path with the
centre at point O. The distance between the centre
of curvature and the centre of gravity of the ship is
radius of instantaneous turn.
• Ship’s centreplane deviates from the tangent to
the path of the centre of gravity by the drift angle.
• The line perpendicular to the ship’s centreplane
through the centre of rotation,marks pivot
point (PP).
• At this point, there is no transverse velocity in
turning; for people on board it appears that the
ship rotates around this point (Fig. 2.8).
• Transverse velocity is greatest at stern.
Comparison of Turning characteristics of
Full and Slender ship
question: Compare the turning characteristics wrf length , beam of
ships

 Two ships of the same length have nearly

the same Transfer
 Tactical Diameter for both ships is almost
the same
 Radius of the steady turning circle is much
smaller for tanker
 Drift angle is much larger for tanker
 Pivot point is closer to the bow in tanker
 Effect of ship size on turning
 performance
Turning characteristics depend on the
ship size. The tactical diameter is not
proportional to the displacement of
the ship but relative tactical diameter
D/L is equal for ships geometrically
similar of different size as well as for
full-scale ship and its model.
 Effect of ship parameters on turning and course keeping
Manoeuvring performance depends on ship form and proportions. Table
below shows
the effect of ship performance on manoeuvring characteristics
Shiphandling: Terms

Turning Circle: The path described by a ship’s pivot

point as it executes a 360° turn.

Tactical Diameter (180°)

Final Diameter (360°)
 Terms

Turning Circle
Shiphandling:

Kick
Final Diameter
Tactical
Diameter
Shiphandling: Terms

Advance and Transfer

• Advance
• Distance gained toward the direction of the
original course after the rudder is put over.

• Transfer
• Distance gained perpendicular to the
original course after the rudder is put over.
Shiphandling:
Terms
Advance & Transfer 90° Turn

Advance
Transfer

Kick
Shiphandling:
Terms
Advance & Transfer 180° Turn

Transfer

Advance
Kick
Shiphandling:
Terms
Advance & Transfer 360° Turn

Transfer

Advance

Kick
Shiphandling: Terms
Turning Circle: The path described by a ship’s pivot po

it executes a 360° turn.

Tactical Diameter (180°)

Final Diameter (360°)
 Turning circle
▪ The turning circle of a vessel is the circle the vessel will describe when her helm
is put, hard over to starboard or hard over to port, usually with her engines full
ahead.
▪ The determination of the turning circle of a vessel is normally carried out during
the sea trials of the vessel prior to handover from the builders to the owners.
▪ The turning circle, tighter with stopping distance, are placed on board of the
vessel in the trial papers, so that they can be consulted by the ship’s Master, the
watch officers and eventually the pilots.
▪ With regard to the turning circle the following statements are usually stated in
the
trial papers:-
• The advance of the vessel.
• The transfer of the vessel.
• The tactical diameter that the vessel scribes.
 Turning circle
• Turning circle information from trials or estimates for various
loaded/ballast conditions; Test condition results reflecting ‘advance’ and
‘transfer’ and the stated maximum rudder angle employed in the test,
together with times and speeds at 90°, 180°, 270° and 360°; details should
be in diagrammatic format with ship’s outline.
• Turning circle maneuver is the maneuver to be performed to both
starboard and port with 35° rudder angle or the maximum rudder angle
permissible at the test speed, following a steady approach with zero yaw
rate.
• A ship’s turning circle is the path followed by the ship’s pivot point when
making a 360° turn without returning to the initial course.
• If the vessel is fitted with a right-hand fixed propeller, she would benefit
from the transverse thrust effect, and her turning circle, in general, will be
quicker and tighter when turning to port than to starboard.
• A vessel listed will turn more readily towards her high side with
smaller turning circle on that side.
▪ The diameter of the turning circle is equal to about
4
ship’s lengths (4L).
▪ In position 1, the helm is put hard to starboard and
the vessel will first move to port of her initial
course. The vessel also start to turn to starboard.
Due to the position of her turning point ( pivot
point) at about
¼ from the bow, the bow will hardly be moving
inside the initial course but the aft of the vessel will
swing to port. Only in position 4, after 4 ship’s
lengths on the initial course, the aft of the vessel
will start to move to the inside of the initial course.
In position 5, the ship’s course will have changed
about 90° to starboard.
▪ Conclusion:
If there is an obstacle straight ahead of the vessel
at a distance of less than 4 ship’s lengths, this
obstacle can not be avoided by a helm action only.
The port quarter of the vessel will hit the obstacle.
• Advance - Advance is the distance travelled in
direction
the of the original course by the midship point
of a ship from the position at which the rudder order
is given to the position at which the heading has
changed 90° from the original course., measured from
the point where the rudder is first put over and
should not exceed 4.5 ship lengths
• Transfer - Transfer is the amount of distance gained
towards the new course (shown here for 90°
heading change).
• Tactical Diameter - Tactical diameter is the distance
travelled by the midship point of a ship from the
position at which the rudder order is given to the
position at which the heading has changed 180°
from the original course. It is measured in a
direction perpendicular to the original heading of
the ship..
• Final Diameter - Final diameter is the distance
perpendicular to the original course measured
from the 180° point through 360° (shown here for
steady turning radius, R).
• Pivot Point - A ship’s pivot point is a point on the
centerline about which the ship turns when the
rudder is put over.
• Drift Angle - Drift angle is an angle at any point on
the turning circle between the intersection of the
tangent at that point and the ship’s keel line.
 ̓̒
Regarding the method of turning circle, which is measured during a sea trial and displayed in
the bridge, in the event that it is a container ship: Max. Advance or a Max. Transfer etc., the
Final Diameter at the time when rudder is steered to full, is generally 3.5 to 4 times that of the
hull length.
However, this information is based on a vessel carrying ballast (ballast condition) and most of
them navigate at a speed of approximately 15 kts. There is no data available for when a vessel is
fully
loaded and at full These specifications are invaluable for
speed.
Turning Circle the helmsman in the event of rapid
turning at S/B being necessary (e.g. to
Transfer
prevent aor
collision
grounding).
Maneuvering with rudder Hard Over
Max. Transfer at
Full Speed is not realistic because
Tactical Diameter above-described
the trouble may
occur.
Max. Advance

Advance

In such a situation, in order to carry out

avoidance maneuvering safely at full
Kick
Reach

Final Diameter
speed and to remain at a safe distance
from the shore, take into account the sea
area while paying careful attention to
rate- of-turn speed.
 ̓̓
Focus on the rate-of-turn speed during the ship's hull turning round moment

Although it will differ depending on a ship's hull construction, speed and stability, the rate-
of- turn speed, which neither causes deceleration or engine harm, is approximately 10
degrees per minute.
Conditions ɿ Steer at a controlled limit of 22 kts and 10 degrees per minute for rate-of-turn speed.

- Time required for - Running distance over 36

turning round at 360 minutes 0.6 hours
degrees ʹ 13.2 nautical miles (22 knots ͇ ʣ
ʹ 36 minutes 5 VSO 3 BUF ̍̌ EFHSFF N JOVUFT
4 I JQ T TQFFE LUT
For (0.6 hours)
example, in the event of avoiding Transfer :
9 min.
2.1 miles
a crossing vessel, it is necessary to Total run : 13.2 mile
consider the sea area and time ʢ ̏ ̒෼ʣ

required for turning round at 90 Advance :

2.1 miles
degrees.
Otherwise, calculate estimated size of
18 min.
sea area, required for one turning
round, by drawing and formula and
checking it by drawing it on the
Final Diameter :
nautical chart. 4.2 miles

27 min.
 General remarks
▪ The turning circle conducted in shallow water will be considerably increase
compared with a turning circle conducted in deep water.
▪ Turning a vessel with her helm hard over will cause the vessel’s speed to
decrease considerably.
▪ A deep laden vessel performing a turning circle (e.g. in case of man
overboard) will experience less effect from the wind or sea condition than
in light ballast condition.
▪ A vessel trimmed by the stern will generally steer more easily but the
tactical diameter of the turn will be expected to increase.
▪ A vessel trimmed by the head will decrease the size of the turn but will be
more difficult to steer.
▪ A vessel conducting a turning circle with a list could normally be delayed.
▪ Turning towards a list would normally generate a large turning circle.
▪ Turning away from a list would normally generate a smaller turning
circle.
▪ A vessel tends to heel towards the direction of turn once helm is applied.
▪ A vessel turning with an existing list and not being in an upright
position could in shallow waters experience an increase in draught.
▪ The type or rudder can have influence on the turning circle of a vessel.
▪ A narrow beam vessel normally make a tighter turning circle then a
wide beam circle.
▪ A vessel equipped with a right hand fixed propeller would normally
turn tighter to port than starboard.
 Factors will affect the rate of turn and the size of
turning circle
1. Structural design and length of the vessel.
2. Draught and trim of vessel.
3. Size and motive power of main machinery.
4. Distribution and stowage of cargo.
5. Even keel or carrying a list.
6. Position of turning in relation to the available depth of
water.
7. Amount of rudder angle required to complete the turn.
8. External forces affecting the drift angle.
1. Structural design and length. The longer the ship
generally, the greater the turning circle . The type of
rudder and the resulting steering effect will decide the
final diameter, with the clearance between rudder
and hull having a major influence . The smaller the
clearance between rudder and hull the more effective
the turning action.
2. Draught and trim. The deeper a vessel lies in the water, the
more sluggish will be her response to the helm. On the
other hand, the superstructure of a vessel in a light
condition and shallow in draught is considerably influenced
by the wind. The trim of a vessel will influence the size of
the turning circle in such a way that it will decrease if the
vessel is trimmed by the head. However, vessels normally
trim by the stern for better steerage and improved headway
and it would be unusual for a vessel to be trimmed in
normal circumstances by the head.
3. Motive power. The relation between power and displacement will
affect the turning circle performance of any vessel in the same way
that a light speedboat has greater acceleration than a heavily laden
ore carrier. It should be remembered that the rudder is only effective
when there is a flow of water past it . The turning circle will therefore
not increase by any considerable margin with an increase in speed,
because the steering effect is increased over the same period. (The
rudder steering effect will increase with the square of the flow of
water past the rudder.)
4. Distribution and stowage of cargo. Generally this will not affect the
turning circle in any way, but the vessel will respond more readily if
loads are stowed amidships instead of at the extremities. Merchant
ship design tends to distribute weight throughout the vessel’s length
. The reader may be able to imagine a vessel loaded heavily fore and
aft responding slowly and sluggishly to the helm.
5. Even keel or listed over. A new vessel when engaged on trials will be
on an even keel when carrying out turning circles for recording the
ship’s data. This condition of even keel cannot, however, always be
guaranteed once the vessel is commissioned and loaded. If a vessel is
carrying a list, it can be expected to make a larger turning circle
when turning towards the list, and vice-versa.
6. Available depth of water. The majority of vessels, depending on hull
form, will experience greater resistance when navigating in shallow
water. A form of interaction takes place between the hull and the
sea bed which may result in the vessel yawing and becoming
difficult to steer. She may take longer to respond to helm
movement, probably increasing the advance of the turning circle, as
well as increasing over the transfer. The corresponding final
diameter will be increased retrospectively.
7. Rudder angle. Probably the most significant factor affecting the
turning circle is the rudder angle . The optimum is one which will
cause maximum turning effect without causing excessive drag. If a
small rudder angle is employed, a large turning circle will result, with
little loss of speed. However, when a large rudder angle is employed,
then, although a tighter turning circle may be experienced, this will
be accompanied by a loss of speed.
8. Drift angle and influencing forces. When a vessel responds to helm
movement, it is normal for the stern of the vessel to traverse in
opposing Motion . Although the bow movement is what is desired, the
resultant motion of the vessel is one of crabbing in a sideways
direction, at an angle of drift. When completing a turning circle,
because of this angle of drift, the stern quarters are outside the
turning circle area while the bow area is inside the turning circle.
Studies have shown that the ‘pivot point’ of the vessel in most cases
describes the circumference of the turning circle.
 Terms

Shiphandling:

• Headway
• moving forward thru the water
• Sternway
• moving backwards thru the water
• Bare Steerageway
• the minimum speed a ship can proceed
and still maintain course using the rudders
Shiphandling: Single Screw Ships
Ship Ahead
Propeller Ahead
Rudder Amidships
Shiphandling: Single Screw Ships
Ship Astern
Propeller Astern
Rudder Amidships

Ship follows the rudder:

Ship will tend into the wind:
Ship will tend to port very
easily
Ship does not tend to
Shiphandling: Single Screw Ships
Ship Ahead
Propeller Astern
Rudder Amidships
Shiphandling: Twin Screw Ships
Ship Ahead
Both Propellers Ahead
Shiphandling: Twin Screw Ships
Ship Ahead
One Propeller Trailing

Counteract with rudder

Shiphandling: Twin Screw Ships
Ship Astern
One Propeller Trailing

Counteract with rudder

Shiphandling: Twin Screw Ships
Ship Ahead
Both Propellers Ahead Different Speeds

Counteract with rudder

Shiphandling: Twin Screw Ships
Propellers Split
Shiphandling: Tug Tie-Ups

Single Headline
• Simplest Tie-up

• Best to allow tug to

push or pull only

• Not good if complex

tug maneuvers
required.
Shiphandling: Tug Tie-Ups

Double Headline
• Not as simple

• Allows tug to push

or pull and complex
tug maneuvers
Shiphandling: Tug Tie-Ups

Power
• Most versatile tie-up

• Good for general

purpose use

• Holds tug securely

to ship.
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Recovery Maneuvers
• Williamson Turn
• Anderson Turn
• Race Track
• Y-Turn
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Easiest Method?
• Daylight: Anderson
• Night: Williamson
• Subs: Y backing
• Carriers: Racetrack

• Boat / Helo?
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Recovery considerations

• Helicopter
• average time to ready for takeoff is 10-12 mins

• Small boat
• average time to launch 6-8 mins

• Ship
• fastest method
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Man Overboard
Kicks Stern Away Starboard Side

Right Full Rudder

All Engines Ahead

Full
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Williamson Turn
Shift Rudder
When 60° Off Course
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

maneuvering
• Williamson

port 60 deg starboard

- slow

- good for night

or low vis
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Anderson Turn
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

maneuvering
• Anderson

port starboard

- fastest

- most skill
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Racetrack Turn
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

maneuvering
• Race track

- high speed
port starboard
- easier approach
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

Y-Turn
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

maneuvering
• Y-backing

- poor control

- keeps ship
close to man
Shiphandling: Man Overboard Recovery

maneuvering
• tear drop

- Carriers
modified starboard
port
racetrack
 Stopping distance and
forces for stopping the ship
STOPPING OF SHIPS

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

 Stopping distance – Stopping time

▪ The stopping distance is the distance that a vessel with her rudder
amidships and her engine full ahead, will run from the moment her engine
are put astern until she comes to a complete rest ( stop) over the ground.
▪ The time taken to complete this is call stopping time.
▪ Stopping distance and stopping time must :-
• Be expressed in ship’s lengths (L) or m. and the stopping time in minute
and second.
• Be clearly expressed on the bridge.
▪ The water resistance, at a constant speed is equal to the power of the engine
and, as a rough estimate, that water resistance is proportional to the square
of the speed ( V²).
 Stopping distance – Stopping time
General remarks

▪ Suppose a vessel with a speed of 16 knots with her engines at the average power of
100%. The water resistance in that case is also equal to 100%. The engines are stopped
and the vessel is continuing to move on her own inertia with her helm at midships.
▪ When the vessel has slow down to 8 knots the water resistance will be equal to 25% of
the
inertia water resistance.
▪ The stopping distance depends for a great deal on the proportion between the
propeller power Ahead and Astern.
▪ The power of a turbine steam engine, working astern is about 70% of its power
working
ahead.
▪ When applying astern propulsion to stop a ship, the ship may by considered as
being stopped when the wake reaches the middle of the ship.
▪ When the stopping time and the speed of a vessel are known, it is quit easy
to determine the stopping distance.
▪ When considering the stopping distance, take into account the distance ran from
the time the speed Telegraph is put on full astern and that the propeller actually
start to turn astern. The engineer is not always close to the manoeuvring board
and whale minute can elapse before the propeller actually turns in reverse
direction.
▪ Elements such as the wind, the state of the sea, the depth of water should be
taken
into account when considering the stopping distance and the stopping time.
▪ Keep in mind that when astern power is applied, the vessel will not stay on
her original course but the bow will turn either to starboard or to port
depending on the type of propeller used.
▪ For instance, with a right hand fixed propeller, the astern will move to port and
the bow to starboard. When the vessel has come to complete rest, the vessel may
well have turned over 90°.
 Stopping distance of ships

As we all know, ship like any other transport utility does not have brakes to
make them stop immediately. When the engine is given stop order, the ship
will continue moving in the same direction due to inertia and will come to
stop after moving for some distance.

• Every ship has three different stopping distances depending on:

a. Inertia Stop.
b. Crash stop.
c. Rudder cycle stop.
 Inertia Stop

• When the engine of the ship is stopped, the ship will continue moving in the
same direction for some more distance due to inertia. Here no astern
command is given (used to produce “braking effect” for ships), and hence
ship will travel more distance in the inertia stop method.
• The distance in miles may only be tenth of the initial speed for light ships,
but more than half the speed for deeply loaded ships.
• I.e. if ship speed 10 kts for laden ship the inertia stop will be about 5 N.M.
if ship speed 10 kts for light loaded ship the inertia stop may 1/10 of
initial speed which is one N.M.
• Stopping ability
• The track reach in the full astern stopping test should not exceed 15 ship
lengths.
• However, this value may be modified by the Administration where ships
of
large.
• Displacement make this criterion impracticable, but should in no case
exceed 20 ship lengths.
 Crash stop

• Crash stop is usually the term used when the ship has to sudden stop in
emergency situation. Here the engine, which is moving in an ahead direction
is given an order for full astern, leaving the rudder in the mid ship position
to stop the ship within minimum distance and shortest possible time. This
stops or reduces the speed of the vessel heading towards the collision
course.
• Crash maneuvering is turning the engine in opposite direction to reduce
the heading speed of the ship. After certain time, the ship stops and starts
streaming in astern direction. This is done by supplying starting air at
about 30 bars from the air receiver to the engine. The stopping air is
known as the brake air .
• The brake air when sudden injected inside the engine cylinder, will try
to resist the motion of the piston and the rotation of the crankshaft and
propeller.
 Crash stop
• procedure
When there is an emergency like collision, grounding etc. the controls
are transferred immediately in to the Engine room controls.
• The bridge will give astern direction in the telegraph, acknowledge the
same.
• When the telegraph is acknowledged only the starting air cam will reverse
its direction but the fuel cam will remain in its running position due to
running direction interlock since engine is still running in the ahead
direction
• The fuel lever in the engine control room is brought to ‘0’
• As soon as the RPM of the engine drops below 40 % of the Maximum
Continuous Rating of the engine, give break air few times in short time frame.
• The break air will inject with astern timing setting inside the ahead moving
piston which will resist the piston motion .Since fuel will not inject until running
direction interlock opens, as soon as the rpm drops near to Zero, give fuel and air
kick by bringing fuel lever to minimum start setting.
• When carrying out Crash Maneuvering, some safeties need to be bypassed to
avoid
tripping of engine in mid of emergency.
• When the ship stops and situation is under control, a detailed Main
engine inspection is to be carried out when there is a chance.
 Rudder cycle

• A well tried method of using the engine to brake the forward progress
of the vessel is to initially keep the propeller going ahead but reducing
the revolutions and turning the helm from one side to the other to
create a rudder drag.
• When headway has been reduced the propeller can be reversed and
astern revolutions built up as the speed through the water declines.
• A typical Rudder Cycling maneuver for a
ship proceeding with 16 knots was carried
out as follows:
1. Initial speed 16 knots. (Full ahead)
2. Hard over to port 20° and, reducing speed
to
(Half ahead)
3. After turning 40° to port, hard over the
wheel to starboard side and reduce to
(Slow ahead)
4. When the ship have passed the
original course hard over to port
5. Reduce to (Dead Slow ahead)
6. Finally when coming back to the original
course hard over to starboard and
engines (Full astern).
7. STOP ENGINE .

• The track reach of this maneuver is

reduced
to less than half the crash stop.
 Anchoring in emergency.

A vessel is approaching a channel in

reduced visibility, speed 5 knots. The
officer of the watch receives a VHF
communication that the channel has become
blocked by a collision at the main
entrance. What would be a
recommended course of action when
the vessel was 1 mile from the
obstructed channel, with a flood tide of
approximately 4 knots running astern?

1. Assuming the vessel to have a right-

hand fixed propeller, put the rudder
hard a- starboard and stop main engines.
The vessel would respond by turning to
starboard. The anchor party should stand by
forward to let go starboard anchor.
2.Let go starboard anchor. Full astern on main
engines to reduce head reach. Letting go
the anchor would check the headway of the
vessel and act to snub the vessel round.
Stop main engines.

3.Full ahead on main engines, with rudder hard

to starboard. Ease and check the cable
as weight comes on the anchor. Once the
vessel has stopped over the ground, go half
ahead on main engines, allowing the vessel
to come up towards the anchor and so relieve
the strain on the cable. Heave away on the
cable and bring the anchor home. Clear the
area and investigate a safe anchorage or
alternative port until channel obstruction is
cleared.
 Stopping test
• Stopping test
• Stopping test should be performed from the test speed with
maximum astern power.
• As indicated in figure, the ship’s track and heading after
astern order are plotted versus time.

• Head reach and lateral deviation are

presented in terms of the number of ship
lengths.
• The time lag between issuing the astern order
and the moment when the propeller stops
and reverses should be measured.
CAPT RAJIV K VIG
 Test
 speed
VT= CB: x VD
 VT : test speed
 VD : design speed
 CB : block coefficient
 IMO standard:
 Track reach < 15L

 QUESTION: IMO CRITERIA FOR STOPPING DISTANCE IN CRASH

STOP

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

 RUDDER CYCLING
QUESTION: FACTORS WHICH AFFECT EFFICIENT RUDDER CYCLING: SPEED,AREA
OF RUDDER, RUDDER FORCE,SIDE FORCE,DRAFT/DEPTH RELATIONSHIP

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

 Comparison of different stopping techniques
QUESTION: What is the most effective way of achieving minimum head reach
for stopping a ship

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

Type of tug co-operating with a ship, where
the main difference results from the
location of tug’s propulsion and towing
point.
The choice is between conventional
single or twin-screw tugs very often fitted
with nozzles and tractor type tugs. The
ASD (azimuth stern drive) tugs are the
compromise linking some of the benefits
of conventional and tractor tugs type.
QUESTION: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT
TYPES OF TUGS IN USE?

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

• Dangers related to ship-tug cooperation
• When assisting a ship, tugs operate in her close proximity in disturbed water pressure
• •
regions surrounding a ship’s hull. This is the source of interaction phenomenon,
especially
• dangerous for relatively small tugs when comparing with the size of assisted
ships.
• Consecutive positions of a tug when approaching a ship to be assisted are
shown in fig.
• . When the tug approaches the aft part of the ship (position 1), an increase of her
speed
• may occur due the incoming flow velocity. In the close proximity of ship’s hull, a
low
• pressure starts to move the tug towards the hull. For ships in ballast condition or for
ships
• having particular overhanging stern, the tug can easily come to position 2, which
creates
• danger of damages to the tug’s hull and superstructure.
QUESTION: IDENTIFY DANGERS TO TUGS IN PROXIMITY OF SHIP HULLS; WHAT IS
• Proceeding further along the hull (position 3), the tug is under important suction
force
• oriented towards the ship’s hull and outward turning moment due to tug bow-
cushion. Once
• sucked alongside it is very difficult to get off again and to continue the way.
• Tug in position 4 enters the high-pressure area. Arising outward turning moment
must
• be eliminated by appropriate use of rudder and engine. When arriving to position
5 close to
• the bow, very strong “out force” acting on the stern tries to bring the tug to
position 6
• broadside under the bow with risk of capsizing. Immediate action of rudder and
use of
• available power (full astern) can correct the position. Tractors type tugs are less
vulnerable in
• such a situation.

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

 The main source of danger for a tug when assisting a ship is
ship’s too high speed.
 Classical tug accidents (so-called “girting”) are presented in next
three figures. In fig., a tug working on a line is assisting a ship
making a turn to starboard (position 1). Ship is suddenly accelerating
for example to improve turning abilities in order to realise the turn
correctly. The speed after few moments becomes too high and the
consecutive tug positions are more and more aft with high tension in
the towline (positions 2 and 3). The danger of capsizing is then real.
 The above-described situation is less dangerous for tractor tugs
because their towing point lies at the aft. So-called “gob rope”
for conventional tugs can improve much the situation by shifting
the towing point more to the stern, but on hand it limits the
manoeuvrability of the towing tug.

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

CAPT RAJIV K VIG
CAPT RAJIV K VIG
CAPT RAJIV K VIG
DANGERS ASSOCIATED WITH TUG OPERATION

• Some other dangers affecting frequently tug’s safety are listed below:
• Bulbous bows are not visible when they are underwater and because of
their important
• dimensions the stern of the tug may touch the bow when passing or taking
a towline.
• Short
towlines can also create similar danger for tugs. This situation is especially
• dangerous in
• the case of excessive forward speed of ships to be assisted.
An inexperienced ship’s crew may not be able to release tug’s towline when
• needed.
After
• slacking off the towline by a tug, when ship’s speed increases, the
tension simultaneously
• increases in the towline dragged through the water. The releasing of the
towline becomes
very difficult, if not impossible.
CAPT RAJIV K VIG
• When the bollard pull of assisting tugs is not sufficient to
counteract all external forces
• acting on a ship (underestimation of wind force, current
velocity increases), tugs can be
• jammed between the ship and the berth as the result of
drifting ship’s motion.
• When passing or taking a towline, the ship’s speed and heading
must be constant. Any
• change in values of the above parameters creates additional
danger to the tug. If such a
• situation will occur, the assisting tug must be immediately
informed to anticipate expected
• manoeuvres.

CAPT RAJIV K VIG

 SHIP DEAD IN WATER
PLACEMENT OF TUGS

Pivot point at
midship. Two tugs
pulling or pushing
sideways.
Ship is shifting to
one side without
swing if both tugs
develop equal
pulling or pushing
CAPT RAJIV K VIG 32 forces and levers are
the same.
 SHIP MAKING HEADWAY

Pivot point shifts forward.

Stern tug working on
large lever is more
effective.
Ship has a tendency to
CAPT RAJIV K VIG
swing to port. 33
AHEAD
QUESTION: WHICH TUG IS MORE
II) MOVINGI.ASTERN
EFFECTIVE GOING
 Ship making sternway

 Pivot point shifts aft.

 Stern tug working on
small Lever (less
effective)
 Bow tug working on
large Lever
 Ship has a tendency to
swing to starboard

CAPT RAJIV K VIG 34

Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Mooring Lines

6 5 4 3 2 1

After Quarter Forward Quarter After Bow Forward Bow

Spring Spring Spring Spring

Stern Spring Lines Bow

Line Line
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Mooring Lines
• Lines
• 1-6
• Lines 1 and 6 are thicker than others
• Mooring procedure
• fake out lines
• safety brief
• heaving lines
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Mooring Lines
• Terms:
• Heaving Line
• Tattletale
• Fenders
• Capstan (p. 188 Seamanship)
• Rat Guards (p. 175 Seamanship)
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle

Deck and Pier Fittings

 Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Shiphandling:
Mooring Lines

6 5 4 3 2 1

After Quarter Forward Quarter After Bow Forward Bow

Spring Spring Spring Spring

Stern Spring Lines Bow

Line Line
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Mooring Lines
• Lines
• 1-6
• Lines 1 and 6 are thicker than others
• Mooring procedure
• fake out lines
• safety brief
• heaving lines
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Mooring Lines
• Terms:
• Heaving Line
• Tattletale
• Fenders
• Capstan (p. 188 Seamanship)
• Rat Guards (p. 175 Seamanship)
 Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines
Sequence:
Shiphandling:
• Stand by lines • Slack
• Take in the slack • Ease
• Take a strain • Take to the capstain
Commands:

• Heave around • Double up

• Avast heaving • Single up
• Hold • Take in
• Check
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Mooring Lines

Safety
• Battle dress
• Snap back zone
• Tugs
• Pilots ladder
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle

Deck and Pier Fittings

Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Anchors

Anchors
• Most common anchor
• Standard Navy Stockless

• Most ships have two

• Deep water anchor - 14 shots of chain
• Normal anchor - 12 shots of chain

• Shot - 15 fathoms (90 feet)

Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Anchoring

Scope of Chain
15 fathoms

30 fathoms

45 fathoms

60 fathoms
Shiphandling: Ground Tackle, Anchoring

Anchoring
• Approach
• Standby
• Let Go the Anchor
• Reports
• P. 194 (Seamanship)
• Anchor watch
Shiphandling: Getting Underway, Mooring

• Concerns:
• Watch the stern/pier
• Watch for other
ships
• Winds /
Currents
• Set on or set
off pier?
• Using mooring lines
and tugs as
necessary to control
bow / stern
Shiphandling: Getting Underway, Mooring
The Ideal Approach
• Approach on a converging course 10 to
20 degrees from the heading of our
berth.
• When parallel, swing the rudder
opposite the pier, and stop the ship.
• Stop headway by backing outboard
engine.
• “Walk” the ship in by tensioning line 1;
“twist” the stern with the engines.
Shiphandling: Getting Underway, Mooring
Less than Ideal Conditions
• Being Set On:
• Stop parallel to the pier, with 1/2 a beam
width of open water between you and the
pier.
• Allow the current to push you onto the
pier.
• Being Set Off:
• Make your approach at a larger angle to
the pier at a considerable speed.
• Be careful not to part your bow line.
Shiphandling: Getting Underway, Mooring
• Easier than anchoring
• Buoy held securely by several anchors.
• Chance of dragging reduced.

• Two methods
Requires:
• Ordinary
MWB / RHIB with boat crew
• Trolley Your ship
A buoy
Shiphandling: Standard Commands

Conning Officer
• Drives the ship’s heading and speed
through standard commands (orders) to
the helm and leehelm

• Helm - controls the rudder

• Leehelm - controls the propellers
Shiphandling: Standard Commands

Basic Format
Conning Officer Helm / Leehelm

Command
Verbatim Repeat back
(Carries out command)

Report
Acknowledges Report
Shiphandling: Standard Commands
HELM CONSOLE
Shiphandling: Standard Commands
ENGINE ORDER TELEGRAPH
 Investigation of Environmental Conditions (harbour conditions)

Harbour conditions must be investigated each time a port is

entered, not only just the first time.
For liner services, conditions must also be investigated and verified
at appropriate intervals as well.

Such investigation requires the collection of as much data as

possible and verifying it with the local agent.
Recently it has been possible to find information out via the
Internet.

However, many vessels do not have an Internet connection, and it

is therefore desirable that a shore team collects the relevant data
and provides it to the vessel.
 ̑

1. Investigation of Geographical Conditions and

Conditions Associated with Harbour Facilities
2. Investigation of the Navigation
Environment (e.g. buoys, fishing vessels,
fishing reefs, shipping movements)

3. Investigation of the Social Environment (local regulations

and navigation restrictions)

4. Investigation of the Natural Environment

(e.g. wind, tides, visibility, wave
direction)

Tidal Information
through the
Internet
 Example of Investigation of Geographical Conditions
(1) Maximum Permissible Draft and Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
Maximum permissible draft and Under Keel Clearance (UKC)
are important information in making decisions on safe entry of
the vessel to harbour.
As shown below, UKC is a value indicating the margin between
the sea bottom and the bottom of the hull. For example, if the
water depth and draft are the same (UKC = 0), there is a
possibility that the vessel may run aground, and entry to
harbour is therefore unsafe.
 ̓

= Relationship Between Maximum Permissible Draft and UKC =

The relationship between maximum permissible draft and Under

Keel Clearance is as shown by the following calculation.

The maximum permissible draft must consider errors and a

safety factor together with the variables in the calculation. It is
also necessary to investigate the maximum permissible draft for
each harbour (or each berth) to determine problems.
 ̔

Most harbours set guidelines for UKC, and many harbours

throughout the world manage UKC together with data on weather
and sea conditions to ensure a margin for navigation. many harbours
employ fixed UKC which is a proportion of the draft, or a set value in
meters.
The European Maritime Pilots’ Association and the Japanese
harbour technical criteria employ the following guidelines.
 ̕
= Water Depth and Tide level
=

On charts, the allowable limit for error in water depth at the international
depth datum is as follows.
Water depth to 20m : Up to 0.3m
Water depth to : Up to 1.0m
100m : 10% of water
Water depth to depth
100m
The actual wateror depth
more is the depth on the chart, plus or minus the tide level.
The tide level is obtained from the tide table. Since this tide level is a predicted
value which can be calculated from a fixed datum, it must be considered that the
actual tide level may differ. If the diurnal inequality and abnormal weather
conditions etc. are ignored, the accuracy of the tide table is within 0.3m of the
actual value.
 ̍̌
= Vessel’s Sinkage While Underway
=
When a vessel begins moving the
distribution of water pressure around it
changes, and the hull lowers slightly in
the water.
When navigating in harbours, therefore,
the amount of this sinkage of the vessel in
the water must be added to the draft
while at berth.
This amount becomes greater as the
water becomes shallower, and as speed
increases, as shown in the following
graph.
Large vessels are operated at low
speed (S/B speed) in harbours, and it is
therefore appropriate to estimate the
sinkage of the vessel as 0.1 – 0.2% of
the length of the vessel.
It is also necessary to consider sinkage
of the vessel due to rolling, pitching and
yawing of the vessel with wind and
waves, and swell.
 ̍̍
= Example Calculation to Decide Whether or Not to Enter Harbour
=
LOA = 200m, draft = 12.00m

• Maximum draft of vessel: Draft at departure (or expected draft at arrival) +

amount of sinkage of vessel (0.2% of LOA)
12m + 200m x 0.2%(0.4m) = 12.40m
• Safety factor for water depth on chart: 0.6m (water depth error + tide level
error)

• UKC: 10 – 20% of maximum draft (depending on sailing area),

15% in calculation = 12.40m x 15% = 1.86m

Minimum Required Water depth = 12.40m +

0.60m + 1.86m = 14.86m
 ̍̎

(2) Turning Basins

When entering and leaving most harbours, the vessel will use its
own power, or auxiliary facilities such as tugs or bow thrusters, for
turning. The harbour design criteria guidelines specify as standard
a circle of a diameter three times the length of the vessel when
turning under its own power, and twice the length when turning
with the assistance of tugs.

Many harbours do not provide

sufficient area as shown in the
following diagram. In such cases,
it is necessary to investigate the
relevant points sufficiently in
advance (verifying the number
of tugs required, and
determining the procedure for
turning the vessel., etc.)
 ̍̏

Example of Investigation of Port Facilities

(1) Maximum Size of Acceptable Vessel at Pier
= Design Criteria for Harbour Facilities =

Technical criteria for harbour facilities according to Japanese

ministerial ordinances are as follows. Verify that sufficient pier length is
available based on the length of the vessel. The same considerations
apply in other countries.
 ̍̐

Strength of Mooring Bitts

It is also necessary to verify that the mooring bitts on the pier are
able to withstand mooring of the vessel. Strength of mooring bitts in
accordance with Japanese harbour technical design standards are as
follows.
 ̍̑

Fenders
Fenders are also an important item of equipment for safe mooring
of the vessel. Particularly when a swell enters the harbour,
insufficient fenders may result in damage to the pier and to the hull
of the vessel. If damaged fenders are discovered after entering
harbour, they should be photographed to guard against claims later
on.
 ̍̒

Tugs
Tugs are an important means of assistance when maneuvering while
entering and leaving harbour. Verifying the number and power of tugs
is an important part of the investigation of harbour conditions.
= Power and Number of Tugs =
• Size and loading condition of the vessel
• Conditions of main engines, rudders, and anchors of the vessel
• Weather and sea conditions (wind direction, wind force, direction and speed
of tidal flow, waves)
• Method of approaching and leaving the pier (mooring toward the
direction of arrival and departure)
• Water depth in the area (consider effects of shallow water)
• Availability of thrusters
• Area available for maneuvering
 ̍̓

Guidelines are commonly set for the number of tugs required at each
harbour. Use this information for reference.

When no guidelines have been set, use the following equation to

determine the necessary power in conjunction with the
deadweight of the vessel.
 ̍̔

It is possible to reduce the number of tugs if they are fitted with

thrusters.
While bow thrusters operate only in the transverse direction, tugs
have a significant difference in that they allow towing and pushing
at an angle.
It is important to increase the number of tugs used when
entering or leaving harbour without hesitation in bad weather and
sea conditions.

Bow thruster Tug (towing and pushing at an

angle)
 ̍̕

Vessel Maneuverability
Approximately 70% of incidents of damage to harbour facilities
involve damage to piers and fenders, however most are due to
mistakes in operation of the vessel.
Such mistakes in confined harbours with limited area available
for maneuvering are due to the following;
(1) Inability to accurately determine the effects of
external forces such as wind and tides.
(2) Mistakes in speed control and turning of the vessel
while using engines and tugs.
The ship navigator gradually reduces speed in
accordance with the distance remaining, and is
required to adjust speed and turn the vessel
while considering its type, size, loading condition,
inertia, maneuverability, and the effects of
external forces.
 ̎̌
Effects of External Forces (wind)
=Transverse Movement and Turning
Under Wind Pressure While Underway=
ᶃ Straight ahead if no external forces are acting
/ WЌ
in windless conditions. Water Resist. / WB
ᶄ When the wind is at 45˃ to starboard, the vessel is pressed Direction of
to leeward. The point at which the wind acts (C) is ahead Ship Movement Wind
of the vessel’s center of gravity (G), and a turning moment β
(N (Vα)) acts to turn the vessel in the leeward direction.
ᶅ When the vessel begins drifting (diagonally) leeward, water
resistance is generated on the leeside of the bow. The point (E) E : WЌ
at which this force acts is ahead of the point at which the wind : WB
pressure acts (C), and a turning moment (N (Vβ)) acts to turn C
the vessel in the windward direction.
G
ᶆ The vessel turns under the turning moment of the wind or water resistance,
whichever is the greater. Since water resistance is normally much greater than air
resistance,
the vessel begins to turn windward. (N (Vβ) > N (Vα))
ᶇ The rudder acts against the turning moment, i.e. the vessel is controlled with : WМ
the moment N (Vσ) generated by the rudder angle (σ).
ᶈ Finally, with turning moment of the wind, water resistance, and
rudder in equilibrium, the vessel maintains a course at the angle β (leeway)
to the right ahead, and proceeds with drifting leeward.
/ WМ
 ̎̍
The point (C) at which the wind acts approaches the vessel’s center of gravity (G) the
closer the relative wind is to the transverse axis of the vessel. At 90˃ (abeam) it acts
almost entirely on the vessel’s center of gravity. As a result, the turning moment N (Vα)
acting in the leeward direction is reduced (turn), and the force Y (Vα) acting on the
vessel in the leeward direction increases (drift), and the diagonal angle increases,
increasing the turning moment N (Vβ) due to water resistance.

Furthermore, when the relative wind moves from the transverse to the rearward
direction, the point (C) at which the wind acts moves from the vessel’s of gravity
towards the stern, the turning moment N (Vα) rounds up the bow, and acts in the
same direction as the water resistance.
 ̎̎
The course can be maintained if the moment derived from the wind and water
resistance can be controlled with the rudder. If such control is not possible, an increase in
the turning moment due to water resistance increases, and the course can no longer be
maintained.

This graph shows the ratio of wind

speed (Va) to speed of the vessel (Vs) on
the vertical axis, and the relative wind
angle on the horizontal axis, and
indicates the regions in which the course
can and cannot be maintained with a
rudder angle of 30˃. If the ratio of wind
speed to vessel speed exceeds 3.7, a
region occurs in which the course cannot
be maintained due to the relative wind
angle.

At vessel speeds of 6 – 8 knots (3.1 – 4.1m/sec) inside the harbour, a

wind speed of 11 – 15m/sec results in a ratio of wind speed to vessel
speed of 3.7, and the course may not be able to be maintained in these
conditions depending on the direction of the relative wind.
 ̎̏
In the following graph, rudder angle is shown on the vertical axis, and the regions in
which the course can and cannot be maintained for each ratio of wind speed to vessel
speed. When the ratio of wind speed to vessel speed (Va/Vs) reaches 4, depending on
the angle of the relative wind, a region in which the course cannot be maintained
occurs, despite a rudder angle of 30˃.
̎̐

It is important to maneuver the vessel

while considering the rounding up angle
leeway (β) when navigating in a channel
without the assistance of tugs under wind
pressure.
In such cases, wind direction and speed,
and vessel speed, must be considered, and
an investigation conducted to determine
whether or not maneuvering is possible
in the region in which the course can be
maintained.

The maximum allowable wind speed for

entering and leaving the harbour is very
often set, however hull shape etc. should
be considered together with the criteria
established for the harbour in question.
 ̎̑

Leeway of 3˃ to starboard to ensure passage

under center of bridge. (Incheon Port)

Modern radar with

advanced technology
displays generally
incorporates GPS
information. If this
function is used skillfully
the leeway angle and
direction of drift can be
understood in numerical
terms. This information
is effective in
maneuvering the vessel.
 ̎̒
ː Turning the vessel
Turning the Vessel using 1(one) Tug Boat(Free of External Force)
When turning with one tug pushing at the stern (or bow), the center of the turn is
the pivot point (P), rather than the center of gravity (G). Turning the vessel on the
spot in a circle of radius 1/2L (L being the vessel length) is therefore not possible.
The radius of area required for turning can be found with the following equation.

Turning radius (R) = GP + 1/2L

L: Turning radius of moment of inertia

around vertical axis through center of
gravity (G)
˺ 0.35L
P: Pivot point, center of rotation when P
turning vessel GP
G: Center of gravity
G
C: Point at which tug acts on vessel
GC 1/2 L

C
 ̎̓
Turning within a circle of diameter 1L using 2 tugs under Wind Effect external Force
A simulation was run of turning a container vessel of 246m
in length subject to winds of 10m/sec at 45˃ to starboard
at the beginning of the turn, using two tugs. The tugs
were
used solely for turning, and no adjustment was made 10m/sec
for drift.
While dependent on hull shape and
vessel type, a wind speed of 10m/sec is the Пʹ̡̎
G
even
limit, if a 2L circle is available for turning this
vessel. A larger area is required for turning
at wind speeds in excess of 10m/sec.

-PB N
-QQ N Simulator
#SFEUI N (Container)
%FQUI N
%SBGU N
%JTQ ,5
5SJN N
( QPTJUJPO
8JOE 'SPOU ᶷʣ
1SPKFD 4JEFʢᶷʣ
U
 ̎̔

Speed Control
Incidents of failing to control a ship’s speed while entering harbour,
with the vessel consequently colliding with the pier causing major
damage to the pier, shore cranes, and the vessel itself, never cease.

Ships differ from motor vehicles in that

they are not fitted with a braking
mechanism to reduce speed. Control of
speed must therefore rely on controlling the
speed of the main engine, reversing the
main engine, or the assistance of a tug.

In order to ensure that the vessel stops precisely at the scheduled

point, the ship navigator is required to consider its type, size,
loading condition, inertia, and maneuverability, and the effects of
external forces etc. when adjusting speed.
̎̕

These factors are obviously not formally calculated while the vessel
is approaching the pier, and lack of communication between the
pilot and captain is a cause of incidents, as is insufficient advice from
the captain.

Both the captain and pilot are

required to have a quantitative, rather
than an intuitive exchange of
information, based on experience,
understanding of the stopping distance
and the time required to stop.
 ̏
̌
Basics of Stopping Distance, Vessel Weight, and Acceleration
Hull shape and resistance must be considered when determining
details such as stopping distance and the time required to stop,
however approximate values can be derived with the following
equation based on the principle of conservation of energy.
̏̍

W.: Apparent displacement (displacement + additional mass*) (tons)

Vo : Initial speed (m/sec)
X. : Final speed (m/sec)
F : Forces acting (tug thrust and reverse engine thrust)
(tons) T : Elapsed time (seconds)
S : Forward movement (m)
Α : Acceleration applied to vessel (m/sec2)

* Additional mass
When accelerating and decelerating the vessel, the vessel itself moves,
while at the same time, the water in the vicinity also moves as a result
of this movement.
Power is therefore not only required to move the vessel, but to move
a part of the water in the vicinity.
This is, in effect, the same as moving a vessel of increased mass.
This increased mass is referred to as ‘additional mass’.
 Speed Reduction Plan for Vessel Approaching Pier in Direction of
Arrival (example)
When approaching parallel to the pier in the direction of arrival it is
necessary to determine in advance when to stop the engine, and to
understand guidelines for evaluating whether or not speed through
the primary waypoints is excessive while approaching the berth.

For example, while moving forward at dead slow ahead as shown in

the following image, when stopping the engine with simultaneous
braking applied by a stern tug, and with a distance to the stop position
of 4L and 1L, it is necessary to determine beforehand the speed at
which it is possible to stop at the scheduled point.
While incorporating a safety margin in the distance to the berth
noted above, it is also needed to reduce speed by increasing the
braking effect of the tug or by reversing the engine if the approach to
the berth is at a greater speed.
 ̏
̏

In practice, rather than maneuvering the vessel to stop at the

stop point, braking is applied while controlling speed so that the
vessel stops at the target at the front of the berth without losing
control.

Verify displacement of vessel, power at engine

astern, and power of tug, verify the distance and time
required to stop during maneuvering for approach,
and maneuver the vessel with a safety margin.
 ̏̐
Reference Values for Reducing Speed

The spreadsheet below presents the equation in (4)-1 in a format

ready for data entry. Enter the necessary data to calculate
approximate values for stopping distance and stopping time, and
safety margin. It is important to recognize reference values for the
stopping distance of the vessel using simple spreadsheets. Early
braking by tug or reversing the engine is necessary if the safety margin
is 0.3 or less.
 ̏̑

In addition to this
spreadsheet, it is also
effective to consider
the maneuverability of
the vessel in preparing
speed reduction
guidelines in graphic
format.
The guidelines should
be posted on the
bridge, with copies kept
in storage. The
guidelines can be
provided to the pilot as
reference material for
information exchange
upon boarding to assist
in communication.
 ̏̒
Control of Berthing Velocity When Approaching the Pier
Conventionally, the vessel approaches at an angle on a face line
of the pier, the bow line is taken, and the stern is pushed to the
pier.
This method is still used with vessels of up to 20,000GT.
However larger vessels generally approach and position parallel to
the pier at a distance of 1.5 – 2 times the beam, and are then
pushed sideways onto the pier by a tug (parallel approach).
Up to 20,000GT Large vessels
(conventional method) exceeding
20,000GT (parallel
approach)
 ̏̓
= Advantages and disadvantages of the parallel
approach = [Advantages]
• While this depends on the layout of the pier, a mistake in
reducing speed does not result in damage to the pier. When the
pier is of considerable length, a mistake in speed control simply
results in overrunning the scheduled stop position, and does not
result in damage to the pier.
• With the conventional method, container ships etc. with large
bow flares sometimes damage cranes etc. overhanging the pier.
This risk is much reduced with the parallel approach.
• The attitude of the vessel is more easily controlled with the
parallel approach, facilitating response to rapid changes in
external forces.

[Disadvantages]

• An extra 10 – 20 minutes is required to reach the pier.

 ̏̔

(5) Berthing Velocity Control

The energy of the vessel when contacting

the pier can be calculated with the
following equation, and is proportional to
the square of the speed of contact.

E : Contact energy (ton-m)

W’ : W (displacement (tons) ʷ transverse additional mass coefficient (1-0 – 2.0)
G : Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec 2)
V : Berthing Velocity (m/sec)
C : Energy diminution coefficient due to turning etc.
 ̏̕

Using an additional mass coefficient of

1.8, and C of 0.5 in the above equation,
a container vessel with a displacement

Contact energy (t-m)

of 50,000 tons approaching the pier at a
speed of 10cm/sec has a contact energy
of approximately 23 ton-m.
This is equivalent to a 1 ton motor
vehicle colliding with a wall at Berthing Velocity (V cm/sec)

80km/h.

Vessels generally approach at a maximum speed of 10cm/sec, with

large vessels and VLCCs approaching at 5cm/sec.
These speeds allow absorption of the energy of the vessel when
contacting the pier fenders, and prevent damage to the hull and the
pier.
 ̐̌

Preventing Damage to Harbour

· Facilities
Grasp External forces

· Control the attitude and speed of the vessel appropriately

while maneuvering.

· It is necessary for the captain to plan the procedure for

entry and exit in advance.

· Bridge Resource Management During Harbour Entry and

Exit S/B
When the pilot boards the vessel, present the pilot card,
and explain draft, displacement and other points of special
note.

Officers stationed at the bow and stern report repeatedly on

movement of the tugs.
 ̐̍

· Bridge Resource Management During Arriving and and

Departure S/B in Harbour

Consult with the navigator on the day prior to harbour entry for a
briefing on harbour entry and exit procedures.
When the pilot boards the vessel, present the pilot card , and explain
draft, displacement and other points of special note.

Obtain information from the pilot on where the tug is to be taken up,
whether the pier is to be approached on the ship’s port or starboard
side, and the number of mooring lines etc. to be used. If there is time
available, verify the requirements for maneuvering of the vessel (e.g.
turning point).
 ̐̎
· Ensure that the officer on the bridge reports engine speed (when engines
are operated), and that the helmsman reports rudder status as
appropriate. When the engine is stopped in the final stages of approaching
the pier, the officer may begin tidying up the bridge and he / she may
neglect to report the berthing velocity of the vessel. It is important that the
required information (e.g. ahead/astern speed, berthing velocity) is
reported appropriately until an instruction is received from the captain
that it is no longer necessary.

· Officers stationed at the bow and stern report repeatedly on movement

of the tugs.
In non-English-speaking regions in particular, the pilot and captain of the
tug frequently converse in the local language, and information on
movement of the tug may not reach the captain of the vessel. It is
important that officers stationed at the bow and stern report concisely
whether the tugs are pushing or pulling the vessel, and in which direction
etc.
 ̐̏

· Mooring lines are set in consultation with the pilot or Master. Even
afterlines are tied on the bitts, they are generally left un-tensioned (with
the
no slack).
It is important to follow the instructions of the ship navigator when
winding in mooring lines to control the attitude of the vessel.

It is always necessary to verify any doubts.

This applies not only the captain, but also
to the crew. The captain is responsible for
creating an atmosphere in which this
behavior is encouraged.
 ̐̐
Dragging Anchor
The reason why an anchor drags

A ship’s anchor drags

The holding power of the
The impact of external
forces > anchor and cable.

Masters and deck officers should be

aware of how various parameters, such
as the scope of cable in relation to the
depth of water and the effects of wind,
wave and tidal forces on the vessel, can
in turn exert excessive forces on the
anchor and cable system leading to
break-out of the anchor from the ground
and dragging.
 ̐̑

Empirical or Rule of Thumb Methods for

Assessing the Minimum Required Length of
Anchor Chain
d: Water depth(m)
L: Minimum Required Length of Anchor Chain(m)

· Japanese publication Theory of Ship

Operation
Fine weather : L = 3d+ 90 m
Rough weather: L = 4d+145
m
· United Kingdom publication Theory of Ship
Operation

L = 39 x ˽̳ m
 ̐̒

Traditional means of detecting a dragging anchor

ᶃ Checking the ship’s position, to confirm whether it

is placed outside of a turning circle.
ᶄ The bow cannot stand against the wind.
ᶅ The ship’s side against the wind hasn’t changed.
ᶆ Checking to see there is no slacking of chains just before
a ship’s side against the wind turns.
ᶇ Checking whether there
are extraordinary
vibrations through the
anchor chains.
ᶈ Checking the course
recorder in case it does not
indicate a “figure-of-eight”
 ̐̓

The above methods remain well-tried

but, of course, only confirm that the
anchor is dragging. They do not predict
when dragging is likely to commence.

According to one current study, an analysis of anchor

dragging has shown that there are two associated
phenomena, or stages, to the process which
indicate that dragging may be about to occur before it is
detected by the more usual methods outlined above.
 ̐̔

· The First Stage : Dragging Anchor with Yaw and

Sway
Yaw and sway motion of a vessel when
lying to an anchor is sometimes referred
to as “horsing”. Area [A] in the
diagram shows the situation where the
ship is lying at anchor and yawing in a
“figure-of-eight” motion.
It has been found that as wind
pressure force begins to exceed the
anchor’s holding power, the ship yaws
and is pressed to leeward, as shown by
area [B] in the diagram.
It is suggested that, during this period, it should be
relatively easy to control the maneuverability of a ship
in such a state and to weigh the anchor.
 ̐̕

· The Second Stage : Anchor Dragging caused by Wind

Pressure
Where wind pressure force gradually becomes stronger, one
side of the ship turns against the wind and is then pressed
and moves to leeward at a certain speed, as shown in area
[C] in the diagram.

It is suggested that, during this stage, it is difficult to weigh

anchor and, even if possible, this takes a considerable
amount of time. If weighing the anchor cannot be
accomplished, the ship loses its maneuverability.

Dragging anchor may not be detected by the Traditional

Methods until the vessel has entered the second stage
described above, by which time it may be too late to avoid
a dangerous situation from developing.
 ̑̌

Early prediction and detection of the dragging of an anchor

is also possible using the ship’s wake indicators in the ECDIS,
RADAR and GPS displays. Therefore, counter measures for
the safety are required to be taken as earlier as possible.

ECDIS RADAR GPS

AREA ʮ̗ʧ AREA ʮ̗ʧ AREA
ʮ̘ ʧ
 ̑̍
ː 3.2 Wind Pressure Force
Calculation Hughes Formula
3B ͇Л͇$ 3 BY7B Y " DPT Вʴ̗ TJO Вʣ UPO

В : Wind direction from bow

[degree]( Relative Wind Direction )
7B : Headwind speed [m/sec]
ρ : Air density [0.125kg
ɾ sec2 /m4 ]
A. : Ship’s projected area
from bow above waterline [m2]
B. : Ship’s projected area from side above waterline [m2]
a : Length from bow to wind pressure center [m]
(Point of Action )
RB : Resultant wind pressure
force[kg] → divided by 1,000 to be “ton”
( Total Wind Force )
α : Wind
pressure force angle[ degree]( Angle of Action )
CRa : Wind pressure force coefficient.
Passenger : 1.142 - 0.142cos2В 0.367cos4В-
0.133cos6В General Cargo : 1.325 - 0.050cos2В-
0.350cos4В- 0.175cos6В Tanker & Bulk carrier
 ̑̎

ː 3.3 Holding Power created by Anchor and Anchor

Chain
S : Catenary length against the external force (m)
Z : Water depth + Hawsepipe height from sea surface (m)
M : Minimum Required Contacted length of the chain (m)
L : Minimum Required Length of Anchor Chain (m) (= S + M
)
5Y : External force (kgf)

H (Holding Power created by Anchor and Anchor

Chain)
= Ha + Hc = λa x Wa’ + λc x Wc’ x M
 ̑̏

H : Holding power created by Anchor and Anchor Chain (kgs)

Ha : Holding power by Anchor (kgs)
Hc : Holding power by Anchor Chain (kgs) ( Resistance of cable)
Wa : Anchor Weight in Air (kgs)
Wc : Anchor Chain Weight per m in Air (kgs)
Wa’ : Anchor Weight in Water (kgs) = 0.87 x Wa (kgs)
Wc’ : Anchor Chain Weight per m in Water (kgs) = 0.87 x Wc
(kgs)

M : Minimum Required Length of Anchor Chain (m)

λa : Anchor Holding Factor
λc : Anchor Chain Holding Factor
5ZQF 4BOE .VE %SBHH
JOH
ЕB " ODI PS ) PMEJOH ' BDUPS
̟ ̨̞
"$
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)PMEJOH
'BDUPS %SBHHJOH
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4BOE .VE
4
 ̑̐

Calculating the Catenary Length of an Anchor Chain

S : Catenary length against the external force (m)
5 Z : Water Depth + Hawsepipe height from sea surface
̨ ʹ 2
͈ ʴ Y
Z (m)
8D Wc’ : Anchor Chain Weight per m in Water
(kgs)
= 0.87 x Wc (kgs)
Tx : External force (kgf)
Under the condition that L [Minimum Required Length of
Anchor Chain (S + l ) ] is fixed at a certain level, if Tx [External
force (kgf) ] increases, S [Catenary length against the external
force(m) ] will also increase.
On the contrary, however, l
[Minimum Required Contacted
length of the chain (m) ] decreases
so that H[Holding power created
by Anchor and Anchor Chain
(kgs) ] will be diminished.
 ̑̑

ː 3.5 Horsing (Yawing and

Swaying) Motion and
ᶃ→ᶄ Force
Impact From right to left. Anchor chain is
tight condition
ᶅ Left side position. Anchor
chain become relaxes.
ᶆ Biggest Impact Force

ᶇ→ᶈ From left to right. Anchor chain

is tight condition
ᶉ Right side position. Anchor
chain become relaxes.
ᶊ Biggest Impact Force

In this way, the ship’s center of gravity

is moving in a “figure-of-eight” pattern
as illustrated by the green track in the
diagram.
 ̑ Ship’s operational safety measures for anchorage and their effects

Counter measures Effectiveness Remarks

Increase draught by Ship’s weight is Consider stability
taking in ballast increased so that issues.
water vessel’s motions
(Horsing) are
Trim by the decreased. Consider stability
head The point of issues. Maintain
action shifts propeller immersion.
afterward and tends
Veer more anchor to decrease the Consider that
cable horsing motion. weighing anchor is
Increases anchor difficult in rough sea
chain holding factor. conditions and more
Extended time will be required
catenary length to weigh the anchor.
absorbs more
external force on
 ̑̕

Effectiveness Remarks
Counter measures
Can reduce Consider
Drop the other
yawing and horsing amount of second cable
anchor motion by half, and required is one and a
reduce force on half times the depth of
anchor by 30%ʙ 40%. water.
Consider the
possibility of fouling
the cables, particularly
From the outset of Riding to two when pitching heavily.
anchoring, to anchors is said to Danger of
deploy both anchors increase holding fouling an anchor if
power and to the vessel is turned
decrease horsing under the influence
motion. of wind and/or tide.
 ̒̌

Counter measures Effectiveness Remarks

Use of bow thrusters By stemming the wind, The possibility
this can effectively that extended use of
reduce the horsing the bow thrusters
motion and ease cable may not be possible
tension. If the power for technical reasons.
of the bow thruster is
80% of the wind force Ensure that the bow
on the bow, it is said thrusters are kept
that width of submerged when
oscillating motion and the ship is pitching
impact force are and rolling.
diminished by about
40%.
 ̒̍

Counter measures Effectiveness Remarks

Use of the main This can be an Do not allow the
engine in effective deterrent to vessel to pay-off
combination with the horsing motion suddenly when the
steering and will relieve the tension on the anchor
tension on the cable has been eased
anchor and cable as a sudden increase
system. in tension may break-
out the anchor. Do not
allow the vessel to
override the anchor,
particularly in shallow
water where the
vessel could impact on
the anchor if pitching.
 ̒̎

=Example calculation of the increase in holding power when cable is veered =

Ship’s type : PCC laden with 6,000 units

Anchor Weight in Air : 10.5ton ˰ 9.135ton in Water
(Wa)
Anchor Holding Factor (λa) : 7.0
Anchor Chain Weight per 0.166ton/m ˰ 0.144ton in
meter in Air (Wc) Water
:
Water Depth + Hawsepipe height from sea surface (y) :
25.0m
Length of one shackle of anchor cable : 27.5m
Ship’s Projected area from bow above waterline :
(A) Wind pressure force Coefficient (CRa) 800sqm
Air density (ρ) : 0.125kg/sec2/m4 : 0.75

The anchor cable is assumed to have formed a catenary with

no cable lying on the ground.
 ̒̏

Anchor Holding Power = Impact Force (external : 63.90tonf

force)
ˎImpact Force (external force) = Wind Force from ahead x
6
The Wind Force from ahead :
10.65tonf
Catenary Length(S’) : 150.90m (5.5shackles)
The critical wind speed can be calculated from the Hughes
Formula
: 16.90m/sec.
The average wind speed
11.3m/sec ʙ 13.5m/sec.

The critical wind speed =

Average wind speed x 1.25ʙ 1.50
 ̒̐

(Situation after one additional shackle(27.5m) of cable is veered)

After a further shackle of cable is veered, the critical wind speed will
be increased.
Only part of the longer cable system will lay along the ground with
the remainder forming part of a new catenary.

8 B Y ЕB 8 D YЕD
̨ ʢ ̼ ʵ̻ ʣʹ ͈2
Y YM Y
8D
Z
S’ : Catenary Length before one shackle is veered :
150.90m(5.5 shackles)
M : Contacted length of the chain (laid over the
bottom)
23.6m
Additional New Catenary 3.9m

The holding power created by the

anchor and cable system =
67.3ton
 ̒̑
The wind force from ahead = 11.23 tonf.
The critical wind speed = 17.3 m/sec.
The average wind = 11.5m/sec
ʙ 13.8m/sec.
speed
In comparison with the average wind speed before
one shackle of cable is veered, there are increases
of
0.2 m/sec ʙ 0.3m/sec to the critical wind speed.
Importantly for those on the bridge, the critical wind
speed is not increased as much as might be expected
even if the anchor cable is veered considerably.

a full
The length
average of cable (12shackles)
wind is veered)
= 13.1m/sec
speed ʙ 15.7m/sec.
Increase of 1.8 m/sec
ʙ 2.2m/sec
 ̒̒
The Critical Wind
While looking into various reference books, there is
Speed
no concrete indication.
Reasons
· The holding power of each vessel’s anchor is dependent
upon the condition of the ground in the immediate vicinity.
· The actual holding power may not always conform to the
theoretical value obtained by calculation.
· Continuing changes in the direction of the anchor cable and
the angle of action on the mooring system. The result
is that
the anchor cable may be subjected to shock stresses as
the cable sags and then tightens.
· The horsing motion may not be constant and the motion
may
even be accelerated.

After taking into consideration all the factors set out above
the safe and prudent decision may well be not to anchor.
 ̒̓

Emergency measures taken and their effectiveness after

dragging anchor
ᶃ Veering an Additional cable and use of the second anchor
Adding cable to the first anchor is not seen as an effective
means of stopping a ship from being pressed and drifting to
leeward.
ᶄ Use of bow thruster
The minimum thruster power must be equal to the wind force
on the bow.
ᶅ Use of the main engine and steering
The required
Steering power
: Hard Overof the main
Wind speed : Engine Order
engine 20m/sec : Slow Ahead
25m/sec : Half Ahead
30m/sec : Full Ahead
 ̒̔

Difficulty in maintaining maneuverability

It should be remembered that when the propeller is working
the effect of the bow thruster will be decreased by about 20%
per 1knot of ahead speed. In other words, at about 5 knots,
the
effect of the bow thruster is ม਑ૢધ ͷ‫ݶ‬ք
negated.
- JN JUBUJPO PG . BOFVWFSJOH

Limitation of maneuvering by
CZ 3 VEEFS
෩
ม਑ෆՄೳҬ

rudder
଎ Unable Maneuvering Area
/
ધ

Numbers entered in the vertical

଎
ൺ

axis are wind speed per ship’s speed Wind Speed

ม਑ՄೳҬ
Maneuvering Area

and the wind force angle is entered

/Ship's Speed

along the horizontal axis. The yellow

zone shows the area under the
curve
Windinspeed
whichofthe effect of
20m/sec, the
the ship’s speed
֯ ʢ౓ʣ
૬ର෩޲
3 FMBUJWF 8 JOE

rudder is lost.
EJSFDUJO EFH

would have to be more than 5knots (2.5m/sec) VOJUT

̥ ̘ ̘ ɺ I E
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% FQUI
 ̒̕

Preparation for safe anchorage

(1) The following considerations must be taken into

account:
To select a sheltered good anchorage
· Land configuration
· The bottom configuration
· Holding grounding condition
· An appropriate depth
· Sufficient room
· Sheltered from such an external force as wind and
sea
· Degree of congestion of other ships at anchorage
To prevent an accident in the event that the anchor
drags

· Keep a safe distance from other ships

· Keep a safe distance from shallows/other facilities
 ̓̌

Anchor Operation
Recently there has been an increase in the number of accidents involving anchor cables becoming entangled or
anchors and cables being lost. These accidents have mostly been caused by mistakes that were made during the
operation of letting go the anchor. In particular, most accidents have been caused by not controlling the running-
out speed of the anchor cable, that is, without braking when the anchor is let go.

Test results show that the speed of anchor free fall reaches 10m/sec after 50m when an anchor is let go
without braking. That is to say, 12 shackles (=330m) could totally run out in 33 seconds.

According to investigation results, although

most mariners involved in anchor-related
accidents stated that the brake did not work
well, thorough investigations on site have
established that a bent brake shaft and / or
lack of maintenance were the cause. The
crew were unable to properly apply the
brake.
To ensure safe anchoring, the veering
rate must be limited to a brake force of 5
to 6 m/sec.
̓̍

If the depth at an anchorage exceeds 20m, the possibility of damage to or loss of the
anchor and its cable becomes greater due to excessive running out speed if the anchor
is allowed to free fall. To avoid this hazard, the anchor should be lowered by walking
back into the water until the anchor reaches about 5m
above the bottom.
When letting go, the brake should be applied
in order to slow the veering rate until the
length veered is about 2m - 3m more than
the water depth. This should prevent the
cable from piling onto the anchor.

After the anchor touches the bottom, the ship's sternway should be limited to about
0.5k - 1knot in order to avoid imposing excessive strain on the cable and also to
further avoid piling. The aim is to lay the cable across the ground in an orderly fashion
and without imposing any excessive stress on the system. (Ideally, repeat stretching,
little by little, every time until it becomes taut.)
 Anchor Cable Veering RateɾScope of Cable To ̓̎
Be Paid OutɾBrake Force of Windlass

The Graph on the next page shows the relationship between brake force, scope of
cable and veering rate determined during trials on board a 230,000dwt VLCC when
anchor and cable are paid out using the brake. During the trial, the cable was first
released with half brake applied. The brake was applied 3 seconds after letting go the
anchor and was fully applied again after another 5 seconds in order to stop veering
completely. As can be seen, the length of cable veered this time is about 21m.

If the anchor is let go by free fall and the veering rate exceeds 10m/sec, it
becomes difficult to arrest the cable and the brake lining may be damaged. If,
however, the veering rate is limited to about 5-6m/sec by the timely application of
half brake, such damage will be avoided.
 ̓̏

3 FTVMU PG 7 -$ $ Examples of
" ODI PSJOH entangling
ː 3.12 Technical Measures for ̓̐

Anchoring
(1) Technical measures while lying at anchor
· External forces associated with wind speeds and directions
· wave height and period
· Flow direction and velocity
· Ship’s type, Hull dimensions, draught, trim
· Understanding the holding power of the anchor system
· Quantitative assessment of wind pressure forces
· Management of the main propulsion systems
(2) Prediction and early detection of dragging anchor
· Understand fully the relationship between holding power
and external forces
· To detect dragging anchor by observing the horsing motion
· To use track display function of ECDISɾ RADARɾ GPS
 ̓̑
ߟ ɿ Vessel
Ref. ɿ ߴધͷFull Speedߤ
Turning ૸ Լand
Motion ʹ͓͚Δճ಄ӡಈͱ੍ ‫ ޚ‬High Speed
Control for
vessels under Full Speed conditions
Taking into account Turning Motion in the event that a high speed vessel
(container ship or PCC etc.) is operating at full-loaded capacity and at full speed.

Failure as a result of rapid turning during operation at high speed

For example, the following problems may occur when a container ship operating
at 22 knots steers its rudder to full (hard-over).

- If the main engine is in over-load (torque rich) and also in MO operation mode,
main engine rpm decreases together with the sounding of the Slow Down
alarm.

- Outer heel increases due to centrifugal force. Because GoM of a container ship is
between 1.2 and 1.8 meters at full load, outer heel increases due to rapid
rotation, which may cause a dangerous situation.

So as not to cause the above failure, it is a requirement that the vessel navigate at
a restricted rate-of-turn speed at 5-10 degrees per minute (15 degrees per minute
at max.).
 Turning in Circles
A case study of the distaster which started the first
international convention
Advance

90°
Transfer

Tactical
Final
diameter
Diameter

The Turning Characteristics of the

SS Titanic
 PRESENTATION OVERVIEW

 What do we already know about Titanic's turning

ability?
 Some turning basics
 Developing the model
 Titanic's turning circle
 14 April 1912 at 11:40 PM ATS
 The classic scenario does not hold up
 A failed port-around maneuver?
 Was there a "hard-a-starboard" call?
 What Do We Already Know?
• Titanic turned a full circle of 3850 ft measured diameter at
20.5 knots during her sea trials off Belfast Lough.1
• Forward travel for the hard turn was reported at 2100 feet.1,3
• A hard-a-starboard (left full rudder) order at 21.5 knots
results in a heading change of two points (22.5 degrees)
after 37 seconds.2
• A hard-a-starboard (left full rudder) turn at 22 knots would
result in a forward movement of about 440 yards (1320 ft)
for a heading change of 2 points.3,4
• Small changes of speed do not significantly change the
diameter of the turning circle, just the time it takes to turn a
certain amount.5
References:
1. Eaton & Haas, Titanic - Triumph and Tragedy, Ch. 4, 2nd Ed.
2. Edward Wilding, British Inquiry (BI 25292).
3. Edward Wilding at Ryan Vs. Oceanic Steam Navigation Co.
4. Edward Wilding at the NY Limitation of Liability Hearings.
5. Mr. Roche (Marine Engineer’s Association) British Inquiry p.
770.
 Turning Circle - A ship’s turning circle is the path
Some Turning Basics followed by the ship’s pivot point when making a 360
degree turn.

Advance - Advance is the amount of distance run on the

original course until the ship steadies on the new course.
Advance is measured from the point where the rudder is
first put over.

Transfer - Transfer is the amount of distance gained

towards the new course (shown here for 90° heading
change).

Tactical Diameter - Tactical diameter is the distance

gained to the left or right of the original course after a
turn of 180° is completed.

Final Diameter - Final diameter is the distance

perpendicular to the original course measured from the
180° point through 360° (shown here for steady turning
radius, R).

Pivot Point - A ship’s pivot point is a point on the

centerline about which the ship turns when the rudder is
put over.

Drift Angle - Drift angle is an angle at any point on the

turning circle between the intersection of the tangent at
that point and the ship’s keel line.

Reference: http://web.nps.navy.mil/~me/tsse/TS4001/support/1-11 -1.pdf

 Forces Acting on Titanic's Rudder
22 knots Hard Over 40°

spade
shapped
rudder

Force on rudder  21 x AR V2 R (newtons) *

AR is the rudder area in square meters

R is the rudder angle in degrees
V is velocity of the ship in meters per second

Area of Titanic's rudder by Simpson's rule** = 401.7 ft2 = 37.3 m2

R = 40° hard over
V= 20 knots = 10.3 meters/sec

Force = 3,324,000 newtons = 334 long tons

Rudder pressure = 0.83 tons/sq-ft
* Equation is for a spade shaped rudder. http://www.sname.org/NA
ME/problem7.pdf
** http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/articles/rudder_weeks.pdf
 The ship turns because of hydrodynamic forces on the hull, not the
force acting on the rudder.

straight approach direction of water flow

direction of ship movement

direction of water flow

start of turn - helm pushed over direction of water flow

direction of ship movement
direction of water flow
rudder force

developing turn - build-up of hull forces

hull force
direction of water flow

direction of ship movement

direct
ion of water flow
rudder force
Drag and propulsive forces not shown.
The speed of a ship in a turn will decrease due to increased resistance.

0.76

4.53
For Titanic:
CB = 0.684
Turning diameter = 3850 ft Ship length =
850 ft
Approach speed 38 ft/sec (22.5 knots) Turning
diameter-to-length ratio = 4.53
Steady turning speed-to-approach speed ratio =
0.77 from above

Steady turning speed for Titanic = 0.76 X

approach speed = 28.9 ft/sec (17.1 knots)

A steady turning rate at 17 knots under hard helm for the final diameter of
turn works out to a steady state turning rate of 0.86 degrees per second.
Reference: http://web.nps.navy.mil/~me/tsse/TS4001/support/1-11 -
 What Else Do We Know About How a Ship Turns?
The ship will heel toward the outside of a turn.
M Looking forward from astern
Bouyancy force = Weight of ship (W) during a turn to port
(exaggerated view)
W  L = W  GM sin = FC  H bouyancy
force
FC = W/g  v2/R


G
waterline heeling moment arm
Taking: H
H = 18.6 ft B B'
GM = 2.6 ft * hydrodynamic hull force
W = 48,300 tons * equals
v = 29 ft/sec in turn centrepital force FC
R = 1925 ft
 = 5.4° heel righting moment arm L
angle for weight
hard-over full of ship
G = center of gravity
speed turn W
B = center of bouyancy
* Bedford & Hackett paper
GM = metacenter height
Estimated angle of heel for Titanic in a full-speed maximum turn is 5.4°
Angle of Heel Development Over Time

steady heel angle

typical angle-of-heel development

Adapted from: http://web.nps.navy.mil/~me/tsse/TS4001/support/1-11 -

1.pdf
What Else Do We Know About How a Ship Turns?
For Titanic with 40° rudder deflection:
Drift-angle reaches ~8° and the heading changes at 0.86°/sec in 3rd phase.

max = 40°

Phases in a Turn

1. Rudder thrown.
rsteady-state = 0.86°/second
2. Ship skids and
steady-state = 8°
drifts out while hull
forces build and
starts to turn ship.

3. All forces
balance out and
ship stays in steady
turn.

Adapted from: http://web.nps.navy.mil/~me/tsse/TS4001/support/1-11 -

1.pdf
 Determining Pivot Points and Drift Angles X
Direction of ship movement
=   ship length L
850 ft BP

Heading angle  Center of Gravity (CG)

Velocity
vector
Steady turning
Pivot point radius R
1925 ft
Drift angle 

Center of turn
Path of CG of ship
in the turn The drift angle in degrees can be taken as β = 18 L/R (in
degrees). For Titanic, β = 7.95  8°.

Reference: The location of the pivot point is X = R sinβ ahead of the center
http://web.nps.navy.mil/ of gravity of the ship. For Titanic, X = 266 ft ahead of bulkhead H,
e/tsse/TS4001/support/
~m or about 159 feet back from the bow (app. 1/6th shiplength) under
11-
1- the forward well deck.
1.pdf
Pivot Point and Drift Angle for the Titanic
 Response curve for
What Can We Learn From Zig-Zag Maneuvers? ship studdied shows
a heading change of
20° 20° in 34 seconds
from t=0 before helm
shifted to opposite
side.

Tracks closely a
0 heading change of 2
° points in 37 seconds
seen on Olympic for
a "hard-astarboard"
helm order when
running at 21.5
knots.

Steady turn rate for

steady turn this ship is 50° per
rate of 50° minute (0.83° per
per min second). This is
34 sec
about the same
We can use the dynamics off these curves to model the turning turning rate for the
Titanic in the steady
characteristics of the Titanic for several types of turning maneuvers.
turn phase under full
helm.
Reference: http://web.nps.navy.mil/~me/tsse/TS4001/support/1-11 -
1.pdf
 Spread Sheet Analysis
Time rudder heading delta drift angle course angle X position Y position
(sec) angle (deg) heading (deg) (deg) (ft) (ft)
(deg) angle

-15 0 0.0 0 0 0 570 0 speed speed increment percen

(knots (ft/sec al t max
-7.5 0 0.0 0 0 0 285 0 ) ) distance
0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 in
7.5 -40 -2.0 -2 -2 0 -285 0 7.5 sec
15 -40 -5.0 -3 -5 0 -555 0
22.5 -40 -11.0 -6 -6 -5 -802 -22 22.5 38 285 100% initial
30 -40 -17.5 -6.47 -8 -9.47 -1032 -60
21.3 36 270 95%
37.5 -40 -23.9 -6.47 -8 -15.94 -1242 -120
19.5 33 248 87%
45 -40 -30.4 -6.47 -8 -22.41 -1443 -203 18.4 31 233 82%
52.5 -40 -36.9 -6.47 -8 -28.88 -1634 -308 17 29 218 76% in full
60 -40 -43.4 -6.47 -8 -35.35 -1812 -434 turn
67.5 -40 -49.8 -6.47 -8 -41.82 -1974 -580
75 -40 -56.3 -6.47 -8 -48.29 -2119 -742
82.5 -40 -62.8 -6.47 -8 -54.76 -2245 -920
90 -40 -69.2 -6.47 -8 -61.23 -2350 -1112
97.5 -40 -75.7 -6.47 -8 -67.7 -2433 -1313
105 -40 -82.2 -6.47 -8 -74.17 -2492 -1523
112.5 -40 -88.6 -6.47 -8 -80.64 -2528 -1738
120 -40 -95.1 -6.47 -8 -87.11 -2539 -1956
127.5 -40 -101.6 -6.47 -8 -93.58 -2525 -2173
135 -40 -108.1 -6.47 -8 -100.05 -2487 -2388

... ... ...

420 -40 -353.9 -6.47 -8 -345.91 -242 -47
427.5 -40 -360.4 -6.47 -8 -352.38 -458 -18
435 -40 -366.9 -6.47 -8 -358.85 -676 -14
Titanic's Turning Circle
Model Results
 Titanic's Turning Circle
With Ship Profiles Overlain
Advance 2540 ft

90°
Transfer 1740
ft

Tactical
Final diameter
Diameter 3880 ft
3860 ft
 11:40 PM on 14 April 1912
What the British Inquiry Said

Report on the Loss of the SS Titanic

30th day of July, 1912

The ship appears to have run on, on the same course, until, at a little before 11.40,
one of the look-outs in the crow’s nest struck three blows on the gong, which was the
accepted warning for something ahead, following this immediately afterwards by a
telephone message to the bridge “Iceberg right ahead.” Almost simultaneously with
the three gong signal Mr. Murdoch, the officer of the watch, gave the order “Hard-
a- starboard,” and immediately telegraphed down to the engine room “Stop. Full
speed astern.” The helm was already “hard over,” and the ship’s head had fallen off
about two points to port, when she collided with an iceberg well forward on her
starboard side.
 11:40 PM on 14 April 1912
Conclusion of the British Inquiry

Report on the Loss of the SS Titanic

30th day of July, 1912

From the evidence given it appears that the “Titanic” had turned about two points to
port before the collision occurred. From various experiments subsequently made with
the S.S. “Olympic,” a sister ship to the “Titanic,” it was found that travelling at the
same rate as the “Titanic,” about 37 seconds would be required for the ship to
change her course to this extent after the helm had been put hard-a-starboard. In this
time the ship would travel about 466 yards, and allowing for the few seconds that
would be necessary for the order to be given, it may be assumed that 500 yards was
about the distance at which the iceberg was sighted either from the bridge or crow’s
nest.
 What About the Engines Stopping or Reversing?
Trimmer Thomas Dillon: "They stopped...about a minute and a half [after the collision].
They [then] went slow astern ... about a minute and a half [later for] about two minutes."

Greaser Thomas Ranger: "We turned round and looked into the engine room and saw the
turbine engine was stopped...There are two arms [that] come up as the turbine engine
stops... [that was] about two minutes afterwards...[after the jar.]"

1st Class Passenger Henry Stengel: "As I woke up I heard a slight crash. I paid no attention to it
until I heard the engines stop...[They were stopped] I should say two or three minutes, and then
they started again just slightly; just started to move again. I do not know why; whether they
were backing off, or not."

1st Class Passenger George Rheims: "I did not notice that the engines were stopped right away;
they were not stopped right away; of that I am positive.
[I felt a change with reference to the engines] a few minutes after the shock, possibly two or
three minutes; might have been less."

2nd Class Passenger Lawrence Beesley: "There came what seemed to me nothing more than an
extra heave of the engines and a more than usually obvious dancing motion of the mattress...
and presently the same thing repeated with about the same intensity...I continued my
reading...But in a few moments I felt the engines slow and stop."

The engines did not stop nor reverse until some short
amount of time after the ship struck the iceberg.
 Applying the Model
The turning model can be used to analyze several
scenarios including:

• The classic "hard-a-starboard" maneuver.

• An attempted "port-around" maneuver.

• A delayed "hard-a-port" maneuver.

 We Also Need A Typical Iceberg
Model for a 2 dimentional plot

visible
250 ft
portion

allowing for
underwater
contour

Passenger Henry Stengel: "I noticed, a very large one, which looked
something like the Rock of Gibraltar."

AB Seaman Joseph Scarrott: "It resembled the Rock of Gibraltar

looking at
it from Europa Point."

QM Olliver: "The iceberg was about the height of the boat deck; if anything,
just a little higher. It was almost alongside of the boat, sir. The top did not
 The "Hard-a-Starboard" Scenario
7.5 Second Increments Shown on a 500' X 500' Grid
What Do the Turning Model Results Say?

A turn of "hard-a-starboard" 37 seconds before

collision with no other corrective action would have likely
produce severe damage along the entire starboard side.
 Reality and Contradiction
QM HICHENS AT THE AMERICAN INQUIRY

QM Hichens: "The sixth officer repeated the order, "The helm is hard
astarboard, sir." But, during the time, she was crushing the ice, or we could hear
the grinding noise along the ship's bottom. I heard the telegraph ring, sir."

QM HICHENS' FIRST RESPONSE AT THE BRITISH INQUIRY

951. Had you time to get the helm hard a starboard before she struck? - [QM
Hichens] No, she was crashing then.

QM HICHENS' CONTRADICTION

957. Before the vessel struck had you had time to get the wheel right over? - [QM
Hichens] The wheel was over then, hard over.
958. (The Commissioner.) Before she struck? - Oh yes, hard over before she
struck.
 Some Reality Checks
QM Alfred Olliver: "I know the orders I heard when I was on the bridge was
after we had struck the iceberg. I heard hard aport, and there was the man
at the wheel and the officer. The officer was seeing it was carried out right."

AB Seaman Joseph Scarrott: "Under port helm. Her stern was slewing off the
iceberg. Her starboard quarter was going off the iceberg, and the starboard
bow was going as if to make a circle round it."

Fireman Alfred Shiers: "I saw the berg that was going away...on the
starboard quarter, off the stern."
 Some Reality Checks
Was the Iceberg Really Dead Ahead?
This sketch (shown here with inverted
colors) was drawn by Lookout Frederick
Fleet to show how the berg appeared
when first sighting. Notice how he
placed the berg slightly off the
Senator SMITH. They swung the starboard bow of the ship, not dead
ship's bow away from the object?
Mr. FLEET. Yes; because we were ahead of her. Fleet occupied the port
making straight for it.
side of crow's nest while Lee had the
starboard side.

Despite what he told Senator Smith,

this view may explain an apparent
delay in getting an immediate response
from the bridge when the 3 bell
warning was given.
 Time From 3-Bell Lookout Warning to Collision
Lookout Fredrick Fleet: "I saw this black thing looming up; I didn’t know what it was. I asked
Lee if he knew what it was. He couldn’t say. I thought I better ring the bell. I rang it three
times." [Interview with Leslie Reade]

QM Robert Hichens: "[The first notice that there was something ahead was] three gongs from the
crow's-nest, Sir...Well, as near as I can tell you, [it was] about half a minute [before the order
came 'Hard-astarboard']." [British Inquiry 969-973]

QM Alfred Olliver: "When I was doing this bit of duty I heard three bells rung up in the crow's
nest, which I knew that it was something ahead...When I heard the report, I looked, but could
not see anything, and I left that and came was just entering on the bridge just as the shock
came." [American Inquiry]

IT TAKES ABOUT 45 SECONDS ON AVERAGE TO WALK FROM THE

STANDARD COMPASS PLATFORM TO THE BRIDGE NOT COUNTING
REACTION TIME.

Time from 3-bell lookout warning to collision would be about 50-60

seconds based on QM Olliver's reported actions.

Iceberg spotted some short time earlier by Frederick Fleet.

We really don't know what time Murdoch first spotted the iceberg.
Modeling a "Port-around" Maneuver
 Modeling a "Port-around" Maneuver

Time rudder heading delta drift angle course angle X position Y position
(sec) angle (deg) heading (deg) (deg) (ft) (ft)
(deg) angle

-15 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 570 0

0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0 0
3.75 -13.3 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 0 -143 0
7.5 -26.7 -2.0 -1.5 -2.0 0 -285 0
11.25 -40 -3.6 -1.6 -3.3 -0.3 -424 -1

15 -40 -5.5 -1.9 -4.5 -1 -559 -3

18.75 -40 -8.0 -2.5 -5.5 -2.5 -689 -9

Setting the heading angle. 22.5 -40 -11.0 -3 -6.0 -5 -812 -20
26.25 -40 -16.0 -5 -7.0 -9 -931 -50
30 -26.7 -19.0 -3 -6.0 -13 -1044 -80
33.75 -13.3 -22.0 -3 -4.5 -17.5 -1152 -139
37.5 0 -22.5 -0.5 -3.0 -19.5 -1254 -175
41.25 13.3 -22.5 0 -2.0 -20.5 -1357 -214
45 26.7 -22.0 0.5 -1.0 -21 -1458 -253
48.75 40 -21.5 0.5 0.0 -21.5 -1560 -293
52.5 40 -19.5 2 1.0 -20.5 -1662 -331
56.25 40 -17.2 2.3 2.0 -19.2 -1765 -367
60 40 -14.5 2.7 3.0 -17.5 -1869 -399
92 ft
63.75 40 -11.6 2.9 4.5 -16.1 -1973 -430
67.5 40 -8.4 3.25 6.0 -14.35 -2079 -457
882 ft OA 71.25 40 -5.1 3.25 7.0 -12.1 -2186 -479
75 40 -1.9 3.25 8.0 -9.85 -2293 -498
"Port-around" Scenario — Did It Happen Like This?
3.75 Second Increments Shown on 250' X 250' grid
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
 A turning model was developed for SS Titanic based on
reported observations of Titanic and Olympic and generic ship
maneuvering characteristics
 Model applied to a spread sheet for analysis
 model uses realistic parameters such as speed reduction in a turn
and drift angle
 data gives heading angle, course angle, and X-Y coordinates as
function of time
 results allow for animation analysis
 The classic collision where the ship sideswipes an iceberg
37
seconds following a "hard-a-starboard" order does not hold
up.
 Several alternative scenarios have been considered
 a port-around type of maneuver
 a delayed hard-a-port only maneuver