DIALOG GROUP BERHAD

Civil Works Inspection

Trainer: Roza
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Mix design (Concrete)
2. Trail Mix
3. Cube tests
4. Slump
5. Concrete cover
6. Rebar / Reinforcement
7. Site preparation
8. Site investigation
9. Underground scanning
10. Road work and drainage
11. Earthwork
12. Piling
13. Structure
14. Applicable Code & Standard
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 MODULE 1
MIX DESIGN – Concrete

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Mix Design (Concrete)

1. Concrete
Concrete mix design may be defines as the art of selecting suitable
ingredients of concrete and determining their relative proportions with the
object of producing concrete of certain minimum strength, workability &
durability as economically as possible.

A concrete mix is a combination of five major

elements in various proportions:
1. Cement
2. Water
3. Coarse aggregates
4. Fine aggregates (i.e. sand)
5. Air

- Additional elements such as pozzolanic materials and chemical

admixtures can also be incorporated into the mix to give it certain
desirable properties.
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Objectives of Mix Design
• The purpose of concrete mix design is to ensure the most optimum
proportions of the constituent materials to fulfill the requirement of
the structure being built. Mix design should ensure following
objectives.

• To achieve the designed/ desired workability in the plastic stage

• To achieve the desired minimum strength in the hardened stage

• To achieve the desired durability in the given environment

conditions

• To produce concrete as economically as possible.

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Basic Considerations
The following point must be considered while designing concrete mixes:

a) Cost

• Material Cost
• Equipment Cost
• Labour Cost

The variation in the cost of materials arises from the fact that cement is several
times costlier than aggregates. So it is natural in mix design to aim at as lean a
mix as possible. Therefore, all possible steps should be taken to reduce the
cement content of a concrete mixtures without sacrificing the desirable
properties of concrete such as strength and durability.

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 Basic Considerations
b) Project Specification

• Minimum Compressive Strength Required,

• Minimum Water/Cement Ratio,
• Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracks,
• Maximum aggregate / cement ratio,
• maximum density of concrete in case of gravity dams

c) Strength and durability

• Strength and durability require lower w/c ratio. It is usually achieved not by
increasing the cement content, but by lowering the water at given cement
content.
• Water demand can by lowered by throughout control of the aggregate
grading and by using water reducing admixtures.

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 Basic Considerations

d) Workability

• The consistency of concrete should no more than that necessary for

placing, compacting and finishing.
• For concrete mixes required high consistency at the time of placing, the use
of water-reducing and set-retarding admixtures should be used rather than
the addition of more water
• Wherever possible, the cohesiveness and finish ability of concrete should
be improved by increasing sand/ aggregate ratio than by increasing the
proportion of the fine particles in the sand.

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 Principles of Mix Design

1. The environment exposure condition for the structure

2. The grade of concrete, their characteristic strength’s and standard
deviations
3. The type of cement
4. The types and sizes of aggregates and their sources of supply
5. The nominal maximum sizes of aggregates
6. Maximum and minimum cement content in kg/m3
7. Water cement ratio
8. The degree of workability of concrete based on placing conditions
9. Air content inclusive of entrained air
10. The maximum/minimum density of concrete
11. The maximum/minimum temperature of fresh concrete
12. Type of water available for mixing and curing
13. The source of water and the impurities present in it.

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Flow Chart Concrete Design Mix

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 Factors Influencing Choice of Mix Design

The important influencing the design of concrete mix are:

• Grade of Concrete
• Type of Cement
• Maximum nominal Size of Aggregate
• Grading of Combined aggregate
• Maximum Water/ Cement Ratio
• Workability
• Durability
• Quality Control.

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How to Design Concrete Mix Design

Step 1: Target Mean Strength

Step 2: Selection Of Water Cement Ratio

Step 3: Estimation Of Water Content And Fine To Total Aggregate Ratio

Step 4: Calculation Of Cement Content

Step 5: Calculation Of Aggregate Content

Step 6: Adjustment for Moisture in Aggregates

Step 7: Chemical Admixtures

Step 8: Summary Design.

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 Step 1: Target Mean Strength

1. The characteristic strength

f t.m.s = f ck + t X s
f t.m.s = target mean strength at 28 days.
f ck = characteristic compressive strength at 28 days.
t = a statistic, depending upon the accepted proportion of low results
= 1.65 i.e 1 in 20 failure
s = standard deviation (as per table 01)

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 Step 2: Selection Of Water Cement Ratio

1. Different cements and aggregates of different maximum size ,grading

surface texture, shape and other characteristic may produce concretes of
different compressive strength for the same water cement ratio
2. The relationship between strength and water cement ratio should be
preferably established for the materials actually to be used.
3. In the absence of such data, the preliminary water- cement ratio
corresponding to the target strength at 28 days may be selected from the
relation shown in fig 01, alternatively by fig 02(A,B.. are compressive
strength of cement being used at 28days)

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 Step 3: Estimation Of Water Content And Fine
To Total Aggregate Ratio

1. Approximate sand and water content per cubic meter of concrete

2. Considering Maximum aggregate size of 20 mm , the water content = 186

Kg and 35 % sand (as % of total aggregate by absolute volume)

3. If sand is 35% then coarse aggregate would be 65% of total aggregate

volume

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 Step 4: Calculation Of Cement Content

1. Cement Content = Water content / water-cement ratio

2. Exposure conditions – cement needs to be checked

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 Step 4: Calculation Of Cement Content
Environmental Exposure Conditions

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Step 5: Calculation Of Aggregate Content

The total aggregate content per unit volume of concrete may be calculated from
the following equations

V = [ W + C/SC + 1/p * fa /Sfa] x 1/1000

V = [ W + C/SC + 1/1-p * ca /Sca] x 1/1000
Where
V = absolute volume of fresh concrete, which is equal to gross volume (m3)
minus the volume of assumed entrapped air.
W = mass of water (kg) per m3 of concrete
C = mass of cement (kg) per m3 of concrete
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
fa,ca =total mass of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (kg) per m3 of
concrete respectively.
Sfa,Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate respectively. [test data of materials] i.e. S fa =2.6 , Sca =2.8
(assuming) 18
 Step 6: Adjustment for Moisture in Aggregates

The last step in the calculations adjusts the amount of water in the mix design
based on the input of the moisture content and degree of moisture absorption of
coarse and fine aggregates.

a) It is important to consider the amount of water the aggregates give to the

mix and retrieve from the mix because this causes variation in the
water/cement ratio.

b) The new quantity of water, coarse aggregate, and fine aggregates based
on the input values.

c) The amount of water can further be reduced with chemical admixtures like
water reducer.

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Step 7: Chemical Admixtures

This step gives you the option of incorporating water reducer, air-entrained
admixtures, or other chemical admixtures to the mix composition.

a) Adding a water reducer allows you to keep a constant water/cement ratio

for a smaller cement ratio with compromising the strength and increasing
the workability.

b) Air-entrained admixtures can be very useful when trying to increase the

durability and workability of a concrete mix.

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Step 8: Summary Design

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 Concrete Mix Design Review

During the mix design review some of the basic requirements that should be
verified include:

• Concrete compressive strengths;

• Slump or slump flow;
• Water cementitious material ratio (w/cm);
• Type of cement;
• Coarse aggregate size and source if specified;
• Proportions of supplementary cementitious materials;
• Concrete density;
• Specified admixtures are used and prohibited admixtures are not used;
• Additional properties and material requirements in the
specifications such as entrained air content, limitations on total chlorides,
or other durability or exposure criteria.

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 Concrete Mix Design Review

1. Upon completion of the mix design review the reviewer will typically affix
the submittal stamp to each submittal and return the submittal according to
the project requirements.

2. Focus of Review- The review of a concrete mix design should focus on

three key issues:
a) Does the mix meet the performance requirements of the specifications with
respect to strength and other characteristics such as shrinkage,
permeability, w/cm ratio, etc.?
b) Is the historical or trial batch test data adequate to justify the strength?
c) Do the materials used comply with the project requirements as evidenced
by test results, certifications, and product data?

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Concrete Mix Design Review

3. Follow up
a) After the completion of the mix design review the accepted mix designs
need to be provided to the concrete special inspector to verify the use of
the required design mix
b) It is expected that the special inspector will use the mix number and other
information on the mix design to verify that the concrete mix provided is the
mix design that was reviewed.

4. Reviews to Modified Mixes

a) If a concrete mix design is modified after it has been reviewed the engineer
will need to decide whether it needs to be re-reviewed and if so the extent
of the review.
b) If a mix design is modified, care should be exercised to verify exactly what
was changed if an abbreviated review is contemplated.

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MODULE 2
TRIAL MIX

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 Trial Mix

1. Purpose of Trial Mix

• The purpose of concrete trial mixes is to enable you to check the strength,
workability, density, compactness and other properties of concrete mixes.
Trial mixes are often undertaken when new materials or admixtures are to
be used.
• Trials are also undertaken when setting up batch data. Trial mixes can help
you maximize all the materials in the mix and is important for mix
optimization.

2. The fresh concrete should be tested for slump, unit weight, yield, air
content, and its tendencies to segregate, bleed, and finishing
characteristics. Also, hardened samples should be tested for compressive
and flexural strength.

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 10 Things to Remember when doing Concrete
Mix Design Trial Mix
Good quality concrete starts with the quality of materials, cost effective designs is actually a by-product
of selecting the best quality material and good construction practices

1. British Standards and other standards only serves as a guide, initial designs must be confirmed by
laboratory trial and plant trial, adjustments on the design shall be done during trial mixes. Initial design
“on paper” is never the final design.
2. Always carry out trial mixes using the materials for actual use.
3. Carry out 2 or 3 design variations for every design target.
4. Consider always the factor of safety, (1.125, 1.2, 1.25, 1.3 X target strength)
5. Before proceeding to plant trials, always confirm the source of materials to be the same as the one
used in the laboratory trials.
6. Check calibration of batching plant.
7. Carry out full tests of fresh concrete at the batching plant, specially the air content and yield which is
very important in commercial batching plants.
8. Correct quality control procedures at the plant will prevent future concrete problems.
9. Follow admixture recommendations from your supplier
10. Check and verify strength development, most critical stage is the 3 ,7 and 28 days strength.

Important note:
Technical knowledge is an advantage for batching plant staff, even if you have good concrete
design but uncommon or wrong procedures are practiced it will eventually result to failures.

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Trial Mix Flow Chart

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 Trial mix Basic Information

1. The trial mix is the one of the most important steps in ensuring concrete quality
happens well before placement of the first batch of concrete. While the formats of
design mixes will vary slightly between producers, the basic information required
includes:
✓ Name of Project
✓ Date of Mix Design
✓ Compressive Strength of mix and Required Compressive Strength
✓ Number of days until specified strength is reached
✓ List of ingredients and their quantities
✓ Slump or Slump Flow
✓ Density
✓ Percentage of Air Content
✓ Type of Cement
✓ Supplementary Cementitious Materials
✓ Water to Cementitious Content Ratio
✓ Initial Setting Time
✓ Temperature, Bleeding, Segregation resistance & Heat generation

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 Trial mix Basic Information

2. Test results or trial data, mill reports for cement, and specification sheets
on the admixtures to be used must accompany the mix design.
3. The concrete mix must be reviewed and approved by the Engineer and trial
mix must happen well before the first placement of site concrete occurs.
4. If design mix or material quantities are changed on site, the quality control
engineer should carry out re-trial batch (mix) and submit all of data
including test result of compressive test.

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 Checklist when doing Trial Mix

1. Checking Mix Design

• Studies the specification of concrete mix requirement
• Submitted details of the source and manufacture’s brand name for cement
inclusive of the test certificate for each consignment and need to approved by
client
• Check the batching plant calibration
• Take samples of coarse and fine aggregates and tested as per project
requirement
• Concrete mix designed with a mean strength greater than the specified
characteristic strength
• Checked the target water/cement ratio within specified limit
• Checked the free water content and design slump
• Checked cement content against specification
• Checked aggregate content (total fine & coarse)
• Checked the propose additives and dosage
• Use Approved design mix & instructed to proceed with trial mix

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Checklist when doing Trial Mix

2. During Trial Mix

• All trial mix witnessed by all parties

• Trial mix is conducted at least a minimum of 6 weeks before commencing any
concreting works
• Check the concrete slump, concrete temperature and air content for each
batch
• A set of 12 cubes made from each of 3 consecutive batches for each grade. 3
cubes of each set of 3 days test, 7 days test, 14 days test & 28 days test.
• The cube made, cured, stored transported and tested in compression in
accordance with BS EN 12390-3:2019
• Approve trial mix proportion , if the average strength 28 days cubes test
exceed the specified mean target strength

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Trial Mix ITP

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Trial Mix ITP

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35
 Trial Mix Report

The report shall include the preparation of materials, batching, mixing and sampling were
carried out. The report shall be include the following:

• Name and address of laboratory.

• Name of project, if any.
• Batch identity number.
• Date and time
• Description of materials, including moisture content and condition of the aggregates.
• Particle size of aggregates.
• Grade of concrete.
• Actual quantities or proportions of material. batched and admixtures added.
• Method of mixing, type and rated capacity of mixer.
• Any observations on the appearance of the fresh concrete, e.g. segregation and
bleeding
• Temperature, Slump, Air Content
• Cube test result for 7 days & 28 days
• Name and signature of person responsible for mixing and sampling

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 Acceptance Criteria for Trial Mixes

Characteristic strength criteria for Trial Mixes will be accepted if both the
following are met:

• The average strength at 28 days determined from the test results

from, any group of three consecutive batches exceeds the
specified characteristic strength by not less than 3 N/mm2 for
concrete of Grade 20 and above.

• Any one test result is not less than the specified characteristic
strength.

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 Consideration if adjusted Mix design

After each trial mix, the concrete mix design should be adjusted before the next trial. The
following items may be given consideration:

a) Density: The density of the concrete measured during the trial mix should be checked
against the assumed density during the mix design, and necessary adjustments should
be made accordingly.

b) Slump: The slump can be adjusted by adjusting the water content and the fine
aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio. Slump can be increased by increasing the water
content and/or decreasing the fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio. A slump
adjustment of 20 mm can be achieved by changing the water content by 5 kg and fine
aggregate by 5 kg. The water/cement ratio should be maintained so that the strength is
not altered.

c) Strength: The strength can be adjusted by adjusting the water/cement ratio according
to the Figure 1. Use the results from the trial mix, the water/cement ratio and the
strength, and plot a point in Figure 1. Draw the curve parallel to the other curves
through the point, and use this curve to estimate the water/cement ratio required for the
target strength.
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 MODULE 3
SLUMP TEST

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Concrete Quality Test
Concrete Quality Control Tests for checking quality of concrete should be done for
the following possible purposes:

1. To detect the variation of quality of concrete being supplied for a given

specification and mix design during concrete mixing and placement.;
2. To establish whether the concrete has attained a sufficient strength or concrete
has set sufficiently for stripping, stressing, de-propping, opening to traffic, and;
3. To establish whether the concrete has gained sufficient strength for the
intended purpose.
4. It will ensure that right quality of concrete is being placed at site and with
checks for concrete placement in place, the quality of constructed concrete
members will be as desired.

There are so many tests available for testing different qualities of concrete.
Different tests give results for their respective quality of concrete. Thus it is not
possible to conduct all the tests as it involves cost and time.

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 Concrete Quality

In order to determine the quality of concrete on site, it shall undergo quality tests. Here are
6 common quality tests on concrete before and after completion of casting on site.

1. Slump test before leaving the batching plant and on arrival on site

• This is to determine the workability of concrete in terms of slump test. After batching
the concrete, a sample of fresh concrete shall be taken to test for slump tests and the
samples for compressive strength test be taken too. This is to make sure that the
batched concrete is complying with the mix design before it’s released from the
batching plant.
• Upon arrival on site, a sample of fresh concrete shall be tested with slump test again,
but temperature shall be checked with the calibrated thermometer beforehand. Three
cubes or cylinders of samples shall be taken for compressive strength tests, these
will be the samples from the site.
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 Concrete Quality

2. Compressive strength test

• Three samples of cubes or cylinders shall be taken for compressive
strength test, but it is not commonly three samples, sometimes it is two
depend on the specification. You might ask why sometimes there is extra of
one sample? Good that you asked. This one sample extra shall be tested
“if!” the two cubes or cylinders samples are tested from the three and if it is
failed and the remaining sample is passed. If the consultant is not satisfied
with the result (definitely not!) and he wishes to test the extra one. It shall
be tested in 60 days.

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 Concrete Quality

3. Water Permeability test

• A water permeability test is one of the tests to determine the durability of
concrete. Three cubes shall be taken from fresh concrete and tested in
accordance with the BS EN. 12390-8 at 28 days age. This kind of test shall
be taken from substructures concrete elements like foundations, concrete
water tank, retaining wall etc. The frequency of the water permeability test
can be found in this standards.

4. Rapid Chloride Ion Penetration Test

• Like water permeability test, this is also one of the tests to determine the
durability of concrete. Three cubes shall be taken from fresh concrete
delivered on site and tested at 28 days age.

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 Concrete Quality

5. Water Absorption Test

• Here is the other test that would determine the durability of concrete. The
three cube sample shall be taken from the delivered fresh concrete and
kept it in the curing tank for 28 days or after 24 hours the concrete sample
would be demoulded and it will be sent directly to the approved third-party
laboratory to ensure its curing. The size of the cube sample is 150 mm and
tested in accordance with BS 1881-122.

6. Initial Surface Absorption Test

• Three cubes samples shall be taken from the fresh concrete delivered on
site. It shall be cured and placed inside the curing tank for 28 days prior to
testing. The sample is to be tested in accordance with BS 1881-208.

The water permeability test, Rapid Chloride Ion Penetration test, water
absorption test, and the initial surface absorption test to determine the
durability of concrete.
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 Slump Test

1. The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete

before it sets. It is performed to check the workability of freshly made
concrete, and therefore the ease with which concrete flows. It can also be
used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch

2. Principle of Slump test

• The slump value of concrete is just a principle of gravity flow of surface
of the concrete cone that indicates the amount of water added to it, which
means how much this concrete mix is in workable condition.

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 Apparatus for Slump test

1. Followings apparatus are used in the slump test of concrete:

2. Metallic mould in the shape of a frustum of cone having bottom diameter 20

cm (8 in), top diameter 10 cm (4 in) and height 30 cm (12in).
3. Steel tamping rod having 16 mm (5/8 in) diameter, 0.6 m (2 ft.) long with
bullet end.

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 Procedure of Slump test

1. During Slump test following steps are followed:

2. First of all, the internal surface of the mould is cleaned and free from
moisture and free from other old sets of concrete.
3. Then place the mould on the smooth horizontal, rigid, and non-absorbant
surface.
4. The mould is then filled with fresh concrete in four layers with taping each
layer 25 times by taping rod, and level the top surface with a trowel.
5. Then the mould is slowly pulled in vertical and removed from concrete, so
as not to disturb the concrete cone.
6. This free concrete deform all the surface to subside due to the effect
of gravity.
7. That subsidence of concrete in the periphery is a SLUMP of concrete.
8. The height difference between the height of subsidence concrete and
mould cone in mm is ‘slump value of concrete’.
9. Recorded slump value of a sample is = ……… mm

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Value of Slump at different degree of
Workability
Degree of workability Placing Conditions Slump(mm)
Binding concrete (member of
concrete by spreading, shallow
Very Low sections, Pavements using Compaction factor 0.75 – 0.8
pavers (mixer with spreading
arrangements)
Mass concrete, lightly reinforced
slab, beam, wall, column
Low sections, canal lining, strip 25 – 75
footing (ling wall with smaller
width )
Heavily reinforced sections in
slab, beams, walls, columns.
Medium 50-100
Slip formwork (slope concrete),
pumped concrete.
High Trench fill, in-situ piling 100-150
Tremie concrete (concreting in
Very high water by using water tight pipe Flow test.
to pour concrete.)

Much research shows that for the “very high” category of workability, the flow
test is more suitable for workability measurement.

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 Shape of concrete slump

1. When the metal mould is removed from the concrete cone, the slump takes
the following shapes:
• True Slump: True shape of a slump is only a verified slump. This shape is
measure as the difference between the top layer of the cone to the top of
the slump concrete.
• Collapse Slump: It shows that due to a high water-cement ratio, the shape
of a slump is not a clear dimension. It means, concrete is very high
workability, for which slump test is not suitable.
• Shear Slump: This shape of slump is the same as shear failure of soil.
This is an indication of a lack of cohesion of the concrete mix ingredients.
So, a fresh sample is taken and the test is repeated.

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Factors influencing Slump Cone

Followings factors influence concrete Slump value:

• Water –cement ratio of concrete.
• The quality of coarse and fine aggregates, their shape, moisture content,
texture, and grading.
• The use of plasticizer, superplasticizer admixture, and the sequence of
their mixing.
• The void ratio of concrete and air content of concrete.
• The time of the test after mixing of concrete.

For large construction projects, a slump test is a very useful tool to

check day-to-day or hour-to-hour variation of the quality of the concrete mix,
and by observing slump reading, we can easily change the moisture (water)
content and grading of concrete. Due to that reason, it is the most common
method of test.
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MODULE 4
CUBE TEST

51
 What is the Compressive strength

1. Compressive strength is the capacity of material or structure to resist or

withstand under compression. The Compressive strength of a material is
determined by the ability of the material to resist failure in the form cracks
and fissure.
2. In this test, the push force applied on the both faces of concrete
specimen and the maximum compression that concrete bears without
failure is noted
3. In technical point of view, Compressive Strength of concrete is defined as
the Characteristic strength of 150mm size concrete cubes @28 days..

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 Compressive strength of Concrete and its
importance

1. As we all know that concrete is a mixture of sand, cement, and aggregate.

The strength of the concrete depends upon many factors like individual
compressive strength of its constituents (Cement, Sand, aggregate), quality
of materials used, air entrainment mix proportions, water-cement
ratio, curing methods and temperature effects.

2. Compressive strength gives an idea of the overall strength and above-

mentioned factors. Through conducting this test, one can easily judge the
concrete strength psi and quality of concrete produced.

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Factors affecting compressive strength of
concrete

1. Coarse aggregate:-
a) Concrete is made homogenous by combining aggregates, cement, sand,
water and various other admixtures. But even with proper mixing, there
may arise some microcracks due to differences in thermal and mechanical
properties of coarse aggregates and cement matrix, which leads to failure
of concrete.
b) Concrete technologists came up with theoretical concepts regarding size of
aggregates, which as the size of aggregate being the major contributor of
compressive strength. So if the size of aggregate is increased, then it
would lead increased compressive strength.
c) This theory was later discarded, as experiments proved that greater size of
aggregates showed increased strength in initial phases but reduced
exponentially.
d) The sole reason for this strength drop was due to the reduced surface area
for bond strength between cement matrix and aggregates and weaker
transition zone.

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Factors affecting compressive strength of
concrete

2. Air-entrainment:-
a) Air entrainment in concrete was one of the concepts developed by cold
countries in order to prevent damages due to freezing and thawing. Later
on, as experimentation’s proved multidimensional benefits of air
entrainment along with improved the workability of concrete at lower
water/cement ratio.

b) As the achievement of the desired workability at lower water content

helped one to achieve concrete with the greater compressive strength
which in turn, leads to light concrete with greater compressive strength.

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Factors affecting compressive strength of
concrete

3. Water/Cement ratio:-
a) We are all very aware of how excess water can be harmful to the strength
of concrete. Cement being the major binding material in concrete needs
water for hydration process, but that is only limited to about (0.20 to 0.25)
% of cement content. The excess water turns out to be beneficial in
contributing to workability and finishing of concrete.

b) The very aspect where excess water is considered harmful because as the
water in the concrete matrix dries, it leaves large interstitial spaces among
aggregate and cement grains. This interstitial space becomes primary
cracks during compressive strength testing of concrete.

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Cube test Procedure

The test is carried out using 150mm concrete cubes on a Universal testing
machine or compressive testing machine.

1. Apparatus
Compressive testing machine (2000Kn),15cm×15cm×15cm steel cube molds or
Cylinder having Diameter 15cm and length 30cm are used.

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 Cube test Procedure

1. Casting of specimen
The casting molds are chosen to be made of cast iron and must be rubbed with grease on
inner side for easy removal of cubes. The specimen must be cast in 3 layers (5cm each)
and properly compacted in order that honeycombing formation does not take place.

2. Compaction
In compacting through tamping bar, 35 strokes must be done in all parts of a cube for
proper compacting. This tamping bar has the dimension of diameter 16mm and length of
0.6m.

3. Age of test
The cube test for Compressive strength can be done on 1,3, 7, 14 and 28 days. In some
cases, the strength of greater ages is required which is performed from 13 to 52 weeks.

4. Number of specimens
It is mandatory to have at least 3 specimens for testing from different batches. The mean
of compressive strength achieved by this specimen is used to determine actual strength of
the batch.
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 Cube test Procedure

5. Measurement of cubes
• All cubes shall be visually inspected. Any cube which was unprotected on
delivery or has unsatisfactory features shall be recorded as such. A cube
having an edge broken for 20 mm or more in any direction shall be
recorded as ‘a cube with damaged edge’.

• All cubes shall be checked to ensure that they satisfy the perpendicularity
requirement given in Section 7 of this Standard. If the cube checking jig is
used for this purpose, the procedure described below shall be followed.

• Each cube shall be placed in the cube checking jig with the troweled
surface upwards, and the contact between the cube and jig shall be
checked with the feeler gauges. The cube shall then be turned through 90
degree and the check repeated. Should the perpendicularity of the cube
not be within 1 % of the cube dimension, the amount of out of
perpendicularity shall be recorded and the cube described as irregular.

• Each cube shall be weighed and the as-received or saturated density

determined
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 Cube test Procedure
6. Placing cube at Universal Testing Machine :-
a) Place the prepared concrete mix in the steel cube mould for
casting.
b) Once it sets, After 24 hours remove the concrete cube from the
mould.
c) Keep the test specimens submerged underwater for stipulated
time.
d) As mentioned the specimen must be kept in water for 7 or 14 or
28 days and for every 7 days the water is changed.
e) Ensure that concrete specimen must be well dried before placing it
at testing machine.
f) Weight of samples is noted in order to proceed with testing and it
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must not be less than 8.1Kg.
 Cube test Procedure

h) Care must be taken to prevent the existence of any loose material

or grit on the metal plates of machine or specimen block.
i) The concrete cubes are placed on bearing plate and aligned
properly with the center of thrust in the testing machine plates.
j) The loading must be applied axially on specimen without any shock
and increased at the rate of 140kg/sq cm/min. till the specimen
collapse.
k) Due to the constant application of load, the specimen starts
cracking at a point & final breakdown of the specimen must be
noted.

61
Cube test Procedure

62
How to Calculate Cube Strength
1. The load shall be applied steadily and without shock such that the
stress is increased at a rate within the range (0.6 ± 0.2) MPa/s until
no greater load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the
cube shall be recorded.
2. Compressive strength formula:

63
Type of Rejection for Cube Specimen

 More slurry
 Porous or honeycomb
 Not in even shape
 Weight of the concrete cube is below 7.5kg

64
 Type of Cube Failure

1. Any unusual features in the type of failure shall be recorded. Examples of

satisfactory failures and of some unsatisfactory failures as shown in Figure
below. The assessment of type of failure is not applicable to cement grout
cubes.

65
Type of Cube Failure

66
 Test Report

The report shall affirm that the test was carried out in accordance with this Standard and
shall include the following:
(a) Identification number of the specimen.
(b) Date of receipt of the cube at the laboratory.
(c) Date of test.
(d) Age of the specimen at test.
(e) Condition of the specimen when received (including poor compaction,
honeycombing, incorrect dimensions or out of perpendicularity).
(f) Curing report, if cured in laboratory.
(g) Measured dimensions of specimen.
(h) Mass of the specimen (as-received or saturated).
(i) Density of the specimen (as-received or saturated, and the method of determining
the volume).
(j) Maximum load at failure.
(k) Compressive strength.
(l) Appearance of the concrete and type of fracture if these are unusual.
(m) Other remarks if any.
(n) Name and signature of person responsible for the test.

67
Acceptance Criteria for Compressive Strength
1) First requirement
a) The average 28-day strength determined from any group of four
consecutive samples shall exceed the specified characteristic strength by at
least 0.5 times the current margin.
b) The current margin shall be taken as 7.5 N/mm2 for concrete of Grade 15
or 12 N/mm2 for concrete of Grade 20 or above.
c) In this respect, consecutive samples are taken at intervals not exceeding
14 days. In all cases, at least four samples shall be taken of concrete on
the first day of concreting for each grade of concrete to be used in the
Works, irrespective of the volume of concrete produced or the sampling
rate.

2) Second requirement
d) Each individual sample test result shall be at least 85% of the specified
characteristic strength.
e) If any one sample test result fails to meet the second requirement, then
that result may be considered to represent only that particular batch of
concrete from which the sample test cubes were taken.
68
 Summary
1. Of these many tests for concrete quality, in practice well over 90% of all routine tests
on concrete are concentrated on compression tests and slump tests. It is also
desirable to conduct fresh concrete temperature and hardened concrete density
determination tests. In practice the most commonly specified tests are the “slump
test” and the “cube test”. The reasons for the selection of “Cube Test” (Compressive
Strength) and “Slump Test” (Workability Tests) in practice for quality control testing of
concrete are:
• All or most other properties of concrete are related to its compressive strength.
• Compressive strength test is the easiest, most economical or most accurately
determinable test.
• Compressive strength testing is the best means available to determine the variability
of concrete.
• Slump tests also checks for variation of construction materials in mix, mainly water-
cement ratio.
• Slump test is easy and fast to determine quality of concrete before placement based
on recommended slump values for the type of construction.
• Slump test is most economical because it is done at site and does not require any
laboratory or expensive testing machine.

69
 MODULE 5
Concrete cover

71
 Concrete Cover
1. A Concrete Cover is a distance between the surface of the reinforcement
closest to the nearest concrete surface [including links and stirrups and
surface reinforcement where relevant] and the nearest concrete surface.
2. Cover refers to the distance between the outside of a concrete structure
and the reinforcement. Perhaps see this from the diagram below:

The distance between the concrete and the reinforcement bars is called
“cover”. This distance has to be a minimum distance – as specified by the
structural engineer

72
 Why Importance
1) Reduces Corrosion
• Having a decent amount of cover reduces the rate of the corrosion of those
reinforcement bars. If you have only 5 mm of cover – if the bar is literally just below
the surface of the concrete, then that reinforcement is going to corrode away very
quickly – especially if you are close to the sea.
• This means that the concrete will lose its strength very quickly, and a catastrophic
failure might be on the cards. That’s why it is very important that the concrete does
indeed have some minimal cover.
• By providing a dense, strong and impermeable barrier against ingress of moisture,
oxygen, chlorides, sulphates, carbon dioxide and other aggressive gases and
chemicals.
• By providing a passive protective coating on steel surface. Due to alkaline nature of
concrete this coating prevents corrosion of steel.
• Here, it is important to remember that concrete’s pH is 12 to 13. Now, this is because
that the process of carbonation takes place where gradually it loses its alkalinity
resulting into corrosion.

73
 Why Importance
2) To Improve the Structural Integrity of the Concrete:
If you have the reinforcement bar too close to the concrete, then the structural
integrity of the structure will be somewhat compromised.

3) Fire Protection:
If at all there is a fire, you don’t want the reinforcement bars igniting. If it does then
the fire is sure to blaze out of control. That’s another reason why it’s very important
that the bars some minimal distance away from the surface of the concrete. That will
better enable the structure to remain in tact if at all there is a fire.

74
 Requirements of Concrete Cover

1. To achieve good durability, it is utmost important to have the following

requirements for concrete in the cover region.
2. The concrete should be free from macro defects like honeycombs,
entrapped air, cracks, voids, broken edges etc.
3. The concrete should be strong and durable (low water to cement ratio)
4. Concrete should be dense and free from micro defects.
5. Concrete should be wear-resistant.

75
 Factors Related to Minimum Cover Thickness

1. Before going into the various codal specifications for minimum cover, it is
essential to note various factors which influence the specification of
minimum cover.

2. These factors are as follows:

• Exposure conditions (location of the structural member and presence of
aggressive chemicals where the structure is proposed)
• Concrete grade (strength) specified or maximum w/c ratio specified.
(Concrete with lower w/c ratio has less micro porosity hence cover can be
reduced).
• Maximum aggregate size used in concrete manufacture (Concrete cover
required will be more if higher maximum aggregate size is used).
• Diameter and spacing between reinforcement steel.
• Likely exposure to fire (Thicker cover gives better fire-resistance).

76
 Minimum Thickness of Cover as per ACI
Specification
1. Concrete Cover as Per American Concrete Institute
• The requirement of cover as per ACI – 95 are given in table below.
However, it is clear that the amount of concrete protection has to be
suitably improved in corrosive or other severe environment while using this
table.
• The requirements for minimum concrete cover for reinforcement:

77
Minimum Thickness of Cover as per BS
Specification

1. Concrete Cover as Per British Standard

• The BS 8110 (Part I) 1997 specifies the nominal cover based on exposure
conditions (mild to most severe), maximum free w/c ratio, minimum cement
content and lowest grade of concrete.
• The table below gives nominal covers to all reinforcement for meet durability
requirements as per BS 8110 (Part I) 1997.

78
79
1. BS has also specified nominal cover to all reinforcements (including links)
to meet specified period of fire resistances. The details are given in below
table.

80
Factor Determine Concrete Cover
1. Content

81
 Different Types of Concrete Cover Block
1. There are different types of covering blocks based on the type of material
used:-
1. Wooden concrete cover Block
2. Steel concrete cover block
3. PVC Block
4. Cement Masonry concrete cover block
5. Aluminium Block
6. Stones

82
 Terms Concrete Cover in Drawings

1. In reinforcement detailed drawings and bar bending schedules, you usually

come across the following terms Concrete Cover, Clear cover, nominal
cover and effective cover

83
 Terms Concrete Cover in Drawings

A. Clear cover:
• The clear cover is the distance between the exposed concrete surface
(without plaster and other finishes) to the nearest surface of the reinforcing
bar Look into the following image for more detail.
• In the following picture, Clear cover is clearly illustrated.

84
 Terms Concrete Cover in Drawings
B. Nominal cover:
• The nominal cover is the distance between the exposed concrete surface
to nearest reinforcement bar ( it may be any bar main bar, longitudinal bar
and even links or stirrups).
• The nominal cover should not be less than the diameter of the bar.

85
 Terms Concrete Cover in Drawings

C. Effective cover :
• This term is usually used in design calculations. The effective cover is the
distance between the exposed concrete surface to the centroid of the main
reinforcement. (or)
• The effective cover is the distance between the outermost compression
face of RCC to the center of the area of main reinforcement in tension.
• In the following image, d is the total diameter of the stirrup & D is the total
diameter of the main reinforced bar, an. We all know centroid of the main
reinforcement bar which means at the centre of the bar i.e., at D/2.
• Hence effective cover = Clear cover + Total Diameter of Stirrup (d)+
(Diameter of main reinforcement bar (D))/2.

86
Terms Concrete Cover in Drawings

In the following image, effective cover is clearly depicted from the beam cross-
section

87
Terms Concrete Cover in Drawings

88
 Summary

1. To encapsulate the whole thing, the emphasis is on the concrete

covering and its importance:
• Concrete cover provides protection to reinforcement steel from corrosion
and fire.
• A concrete cover also contributes to the integrity, durability and soundness
to the building.
• If it not done appropriately and satisfactorily, it will obviously reduce the
durability of the structure due to onset of corrosion, loss of alkalinity
resulting in brittle concrete, reduced elasticity and less resistance in case of
fire.
• The cover, therefore, is essential and must be provided as per codal
provisions.

89
 Concrete Inspection Function

1. The following constitute a partial list of inspection functions that could be

covered:
• Inspection and approval of batching and mixing facilities
• Control of proportioning of concrete mixes
• Inspection, testing and approval of materials
• Inspection of forms, reinforcing steel, shoring, bracing, embedded items,
joints, etc
• Inspection of concrete handling, placing equipment's, such as buckets,
chutes, hoppers, vibrators, pumps, etc.
• Inspection of concrete handling, placing, consolidation, finishing, curing,
protection, and repair patching
• Inspection at the plant of precast items, including prestressed work for
strength, dimensions and special properties
• Inspection of stripping, form removal and shoring
• Preparation and testing of concrete strength specimens
• Daily reports on all these items

90
 MODULE 6
Reinforcement

91
 Rebar / Reinforcement
1. The steel found in many concrete structures is called REINFORCEMENT.
2. Reinforcement helps concrete resist TENSILE and SHEAR forces, and
helps control CRACKING in concrete.
3. Concrete Properties
Normal Concrete : Reinforced Concrete
High Compressive strength Very High Compressive
strength
Very Low Tensile strength Very High Tensile strength
Very Low Shear Strength Very High Shear Strength

92
 Why Use Reinforcement

1. As a load is applied, compressive, tensile and shear forces will act on the
concrete. Concrete naturally resists compression (squashing) very well, but
is relatively weak in tension (stretching).
2. Horizontal and/or vertical reinforcement is used in all types of concrete
structures where tensile or shear forces may crack or break the concrete.
HORIZONTAL reinforcement helps resist tension forces. VERTICAL
reinforcement helps resist shear forces.
3. Below are some examples of reinforcement use:
• In a SUSPENDED (off-the-ground) concrete slab, horizontal reinforcement
resists tension while vertical reinforcement (in say supporting beams)
resists shear forces.
• In a SLAB-ON-GROUND, reinforcement increases the tensile strength and
helps control the width of shrinkage cracks.

93
 Receipt at Site

1. It's very Simple just pick up a bar and check whether the manufacturer’s seal is
present on every meter of it. Ensure each bar in the bundle has the logo of the bar
company, without fail.
2. Compare the manufacture Test certificate. This givens actual rebar properties. The
manufacturer test certificate is issued for particular batch lot and it will confirm the
compliance of quality of supplied materials as per the requirement or relevant
standard code.
3. Steel bundle should have tag giving detail of the Batch/lot detail and quantity &
weight as per Delivery Order (DO)
4. Check for rust & unwanted debris on it. An undesirable amount of foreign material is
not acceptable. Do check for any critical deformation or splits or cracks. A little rust is
still fine.
5. Check the brand, the grade, the diameter on the bar and the weight of bundle.

94
 Testing

1. Site Testing
• Check for mass per meter run
• Bend Test
- When you bend the steel rod to make an angle of 90 to 135 degrees
and then bend it back straight, there should be no cracks on it. If the
original shape is retained once it is straightened, you can assure that it
is of best quality.
• Re-bend Test

95
 Testing

2. Laboratory Testing
• Ultimate Tensile Strength
• Yield Stress / Proof Stress
• Elongation
• Chemical Analysis

In addition, the chemical composition like Carbon, Sulphur, Manganese, and Phosphorous content
largely affects the quality. However, it is difficult for a common man to be aware of all these
parameters, so it is better to choose a good and reliable steel brand.

96
 Bar Bending Schedule

1. Bar-bending-schedule is the schedule of reinforcement bars prepared in

advance before cutting and bending of rebars.
2. This schedule contains all details like size, shape , number of bars and
dimension of rebars to be cut.

Sl.No Type of Shape No / Qty Length in Weight Weight in

bar and m per unit Kg
mark length in
Kg

97
Bar Bending Schedule

98
 Work Procedure For Fixing Reinforcement

1. Ensure reinforcement brought to site is from approved /tested lot (Quality

Control Department should ensure)
2. Reinforcement brought to the site, should be clean and free from rust, mud,
oil, grease paint or any foreign deleterious material present on the surface
3. Bar bending schedule to be made as per Approved For Construction (AFC)
drawing and duly checked by Project Manager, after his approval cutting
and bending should begin
4. Formwork to receive the reinforcement should be clean & free from debris
5. Ensure that the size of bar, spacing between bars, correct bends, proper
laps, curtailment of bars, tying of binding wire, enough chairs kept in proper
position and cover blocks are all in order.

99
 Work Procedure For Fixing Reinforcement

6. Dowel Bars should not be inserted into placed concrete.

7. Reinforcement should be placed and tied in such a way that concrete
placement be possible without segregation of the mix. Re-bar spacing to be
adjusted (temporary) to ease insertion of needle.
8. Numbers of laps and chairs to be recorded on BBS as per actual placed at
site.
9. Use of mechanical splicing should be approved by RCC consultant. They
should be provided as far as possible away from the section of maximum
stress.

100
 Work Procedure For Fixing Reinforcement
(Precaution)

1. Care shall be taken to see that starter is not damaged while tying column
reinforcement. Normally column reinforcement fixing is started on next day
of column starter casting. Or if required first tie column reinforcement and
than cast starter by lifting few bottom rings to facilitate concreting of starter
2. Top ring shall not be half inside the concrete and half outside the concrete
as seen in picture. It shall be 40mm below top of concrete. Same to be
ensured for column starter

101
Work Procedure For Fixing Reinforcement

3) All hooks or stirrups of RCC member to be bend to 45 degree, fitter can

use tool shown in picture.

4) No binding wire knots shall protrude in cover zone.

5) General Consumption of Binding wire should be 9 to 12 Kg/MT

102
103
Inspection Test Plan

• Sample

104
 Summary Inspection
1. Check data
• Certificate of reinforcing steel bars.
• Inspection report of reinforcing steel bars.
• Inspection report of pressured welded joint of electroslag with cast iron.
• Acceptance record of reinforcing steel bars and formwork.
• Floor setting-out record.

2. Check sources
Material on the spot is consistent with the inspection report.

105
 Summary Inspection
3. Check construction requirements
Check whether the installation of reinforcing steel bars meets the design
and specifications requirements. The content of this examination mainly
includes:
• Leakage of the negative bending bar at the support.
• Length anchorage meets the design requirements.
• Setting of the hanger bar has lack.
• Any missing bars in the beams.
• Spacing of steel bars meet the design requirements.
• Bar chair and the protective cushion block is in place.
• Spacing of column stirrups meet the design requirements.
• 3 anti-seismic stirrups are placed at the junction of column and beam.
• Stirrup hook can meet the design requirements.

106
 Summary Inspection
4. Check the support system
Rigidity, strength and stability of the formwork and support system.
5. Check the position of axis
The axis of beam has displacement.
6. Check the embedment item
The embedment item or conduit is in place.
7. Check the reserved position
• The pre-embedded steel bars of the constructional column and the frame
column, wall and stair are in place.
• Contrasting with architectural drawing, check whether the reservation of
holes is in place.

107
Summary Inspection
Check if the material on the spot is
consistent with the inspection report.

Check whether the spacing of steel bars

meet the design requirements
108
 Conclusions

1. Steel reinforcements are like a skeleton in human body. Plain concrete

without steel or any other reinforcement is strong in compression but
weak in tension. Steel is one of the best forms of reinforcements, to take
care of those stresses and to strengthen concrete to bear all kinds of
loads.
2. To be able to take informed decisions about the quality of steel rebars in a
holistic manner, it is imperative that we are conversant with the steel
characteristics that have a bearing on the mechanical properties of the
rebars
3. Understanding reinforcement steel in totality help us exploits its various
characteristics, for delivering a durable end product.

109
 Questionnaires
1. If on-site slump test fails, should allow the contractor to continue the concreting
works? (T/F)
2. In designing concrete structures, normally maximum aggregate sizes are adopted
with ranges from 10mm to 20mm. Does an increase of maximum aggregate size
benefit the structures?
3. Is it desirable to use concrete of very high strength i.e. exceeding 60MPa? What
are the potential problems associated with such high strength concrete?
4. What is the indication of shear slump and collapse slump in slump tests?
5. In carrying out compression test for concrete, should test cubes or test cylinders be
adopted?
6. If a contractor proposes to increase concrete cover beyond contractual
specification (i.e. 40mm to 70mm), shall engineers accept the proposal?
7. Can grout replace concrete in normal structure?
8. What are the minimum concrete cube should be cast for each set to be tested for
compression strength?
9. What is the maximum allowable fresh concrete temperature until used?
10. At what age concrete cylinders should be tested?

110
 MODULE 7
SITE PREPARATION

111
Definition & Introduction

Def - Site preparation is an activity that should be done

accordingly for other construction activities to commence.

This process allows you to identify site complications up

front, and address them before construction begins

112
Activities of Site Clearing

1) Clearing Site (bush, tree, abandon structures & etc)

2) Setting out the site (survey – establish Temporary
Bench Mark)
3) Backfill & compact the cavities of the surrounding
ground
4) Securing the site (Build a hoarding, security post &
etc) – standard fence are made in accordance eith
the recommendation of BS 1722
5) Utilities (Electricity, fresh water, Internet & etc)
6) Temporary Buildings (Office, Toilet, Store & etc) – The
construction (health,safety & walfare) regulation 1996
113
Consequence of Site Clearing

1. Enable safe working zone (avoid animal,

trespasses & etc)
2. Tidy up and stable ground condition (heavy
machineries movement & etc)
3. Prevent water ponding & flood

114
 MODULE 8
SITE INVESTIGATION

115
Definition & Introduction

Def - Site Investigation is the process of collecting

information, assessment of the data and reporting
potential hazards beneath a site which are
unknown

116
Types of Site Investigation

1. Site Reconnaissance
2. Preliminary site exploration
3. Detailed exploration
4. Preparation of soil investigation report

117
Types of Site Investigation

Site Reconnaissance
 Presence of drainage
 Ground water table
 Vegetation & nature of soil

Preliminary site exploration

 Approximates values of soil’s compressive
strength.
 Position of the groundwater table.
 Depth and extent of soil strata.
118
Types of Site Investigation

Detailed exploration (CPT)

 Identify Engineering properties of soil.

Preparation of soil investigation report

119
Boring Machine Cone Penetration Test
Machine

120
Objective of Site Investigation

1. The nature and sequence of strata

2. The ground water conditions
3. The physical properties of soil and rock
underlying the site
4. The mechanical properties such as strength of
different soil or rock strata
5. Collected Data will effect to the design of the
structure
6. Reduce cost, time and manpower

121
 MODULE 9
UNDER GROUND
SCANNING

122
Definition & Introduction

To find a complex network of subsurface structures,

services and utilities. Obviously, you must be
careful not to hit or damage any cables or pipes.

123
Preparation & Investigation

1. Obtain As Built Drawing from Local Authority

(Majlis, KUJ – for Johor state & etc)
2. Utility Detection Mapping / Underground
Scanning

124
Types Of Utilities

1. Underground Cable
 Electric – high voltage (TNB)
 Telecommunication (Internet & Phone)

2. Underground Pipes
 Product Pipes (Gas & etc)
 Fresh Water
 Sewer pipes
 Drain pipes
 Metal and concrete pipes that serve various purposes

125
Scanning Method

1) Ground Penetrating Radar

2) Electromagnetic Location
3) Frequency Locators
4) Magnetometers
5) Cable Locators
6) Acoustic Pipe Location
7) Potholing (Hydro/Vacuum Excavation)

126
Scanning Method (cont’)

Ground Penetrating Electromagnetic

radar Location

127
Consequence of Under ground Scanning

 Accelerate work speed ( Excavation & etc)

 Cost efficient ( avoid damage existing utility /
ongoing activities moving smooth and
undisturbed)
 Make the job more Safe for everyone

128
 MODULE 10
ROAD WORK & DRAINAGE

129
Introduction

Road Work / Access

Def - work done in constructing or repairing roads
Good road work allows equipment and materials to be
delivered easily and efficiently

Drainage
Def - is the system or process by which water or other
liquids are drained from a place
Proper drainage system will prevent erosion and washout
cause by surface water (BS EN 8301; building drainage,
BS EN 752-1 to 4; drain & sewer system outside building)
130
Factor to consider in designing Road Work &
Drainage

1. Lot / site boundary

2. Purpose / traffic volume
3. Location of underground utility
4. Location of existing buildings, bins, etc.
5. Location of trees
6. Turning radius for mega mover
7. Maintenance & repairing

131
Types of Roadwork

1. Asphalt
2. Concrete
3. Composite
4. Recycling
5. Bituminous Solutions

132
Typical Cross Section Roadwork

133
Asphalt Roadwork

134
Concrete Roadwork

135
Drainage System

1. Combined system
 All drain discharge into common combine sewer

2. Totally separate system

 Two sewer piping system
 1 pipe system received surface water direct discharge to pond/ river
 1 pipe system received from toilet, basin, sink direct to Sewage
Treatment Plant

3. Partially separate system

 Two sewer piping system
 1 pipe system received surface water direct discharge to pond/ river
 1 pipe system received combine from surface water and from toilet,
basin, sink direct to Sewage Treatment Plant & to pond / river

136
Drainage System

137
Drainage System

138
Drainage System

139
Principle of Good Drainage

1. Material should have adequate strength &

durability
2. Diameter of drain should as small as practicable
3. Every part of drain excisable for inspection &
cleaning
4. Should be laid in straight run as far as possible
5. Drain must be laid according invert level design

140
Testing

1. BS 1610 – Construction & testing of Drain &

Sewer (must be carried out together with
contractor)

141
Consequence of Good Roadwork & Drainage

1. Improving stability of the ground

2. Lowering humidity of site
3. Avoid the passage of ground moisture to interior
of building
4. Avoid Flash Flood
5. Maintenance cost can be reduce

142
 MODULE 11
EARTHWORK

143
Definition & Introduction

Def - Excavation and piling of earth in connection

with an engineering operation

 Involves the loosening, removal and handling of

earth
 Success often depends on an Adequate site
investigation
 BS 6031 gives recommendations on the design
and construction of earthworks in general civil
engineering schemes.
144
Introduction

Prior to start
 Review soil borings and other geotechnical
information
 Study existing drainage patterns
 Plan access and excavation
 Determine handling of spoils
 Verify original ground surfaces (compare against
existing contours or cross sections shown on the
plan)

145
Factor to be consider in designing of earthworks

1. Cost
 Volume
 Machineries involve
 Geological & Geotechnical condition

2. Environmental ( EIA & DEIA )

 Nearby resident / indigenous
 Mangrove / Hill
 Reserve forest

146
Scope of Earthwork

1. Site Clearing
2. Excavation
3. Transportation
4. Compaction
5. Sloping

147
Scope Of Earthwork

1. Site Clearing

148
Scope of Earthwork

2. Excavation
 Cutting & filling
 Shallow
 Deep excavation
 Rock excavation (Blasting / chemical inject)

149
Scope of Earthwork

3. Transportation
 Land transportation (dumper & lorry)
 Water Transportation (Vessel & Barge)

150
Scope of Earthwork

4. Compaction
 Static weight (surcharge)
 Impact
 Vibration (vibro compactor)

151
Scope of Earthwork

5. Sloping
 Temporary Slope (Sheet Pile)
 Permanent Natural slope (low risk area)
 Structural Slope (Retaining Wall)

152
Mandatory Control Measure

1. Public road / amenities disturbance

2. Water pollution
3. Noise & Dust

153
Consequence of Earthwork

1. To avoid overturning
2. To avoid sliding
3. The soil which the wall rest not overload
4. Material used in construction are not
overstressed

154
MODULE 12
PILING

155
Piling

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation. It

transfers the load of the superstructure to the
desired depth into the soil. Typically pile foundation
is made of concrete and steel.

156
Piling – Uses of Pile foundation

There are different situations when a pile foundation is

used. Followings are the main cases where pile foundation
use is desirable.

• If a high groundwater table exists beneath the structure.

• If the superstructure load is high and non-uniform.
• Pile foundation is economic than other
proposed foundation types.
• If highly compressible soil is present at shallow depth.
• If the structure is located near the river bed or sea shore
etc, pile foundation is suggested to secure the structure
form the possible scouring.
157
Piling – Uses of Pile foundation

There are different situations when a pile foundation is

used. Followings are the main cases where pile foundation
use is desirable.

• If a canal or deep drainage systems pass near the

structure, pile foundation is suggested.
• If soil condition is very poor and it is not possible to
excavate the soil up to the desired depth.
• If it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches
dry by any measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.

158
Piling – Factors Affecting Selection of Pile
Types

There are several types of pile foundation available to use

for a particular project. Few factors influence the selection of
a particular type of pile foundation. These factors are noted
below-

• Type and loads from the superstructure.

• Properties of soil.
• The depth of the soil layer capable of supporting the piles.
• Variations in length of pile required.
• Availability of materials.

159
Piling – Factors Affecting Selection of Pile
Types

There are several types of pile foundation available to use

for a particular project. Few factors influence the selection of
a particular type of pile foundation. These factors are noted
below-

• Durability required.
• Available equipment for pile driving.
• Budget.
• The depth of water level and intensity of underground
water flow.
• Types of surrounding structures.

160
Piling – Factors Affecting Selection of Pile
Types

1. Based on Function or Use

Sheet Piles
Load Bearing Piles
End bearing Piles
Friction Piles

2. Based on Materials and Construction Method

Timber Piles
Concrete Piles
Steel Piles
Composite Piles
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Piling – Installation Method

Piles made from (Wood, steel and concrete) are driven,

drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps.

1.•In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design,

installation methods and installation equipment should be
carefully selected.
2.•The installation process and method of installations are
equally important factors as of the design process of pile
foundations. There are two main types of pile installation
methods:
A) Pile driving methods (displacement piles)
B) Boring methods ( non-displacement piles)
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Piling – Pile driving methods

Methods of pile driving can be categorized as follows:

1. Dropping weight (Impact hammers)

2. Vibration (vibratory hammers)

3. Jacking

163
Piling – Driving Method

164
Piling – Pile Boring methods

1. Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)

2. Drilled Piles (Caissons)

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MODULE 13
STRUCTURE

16
6
Structure

The two major components of buildings are the

substructure and superstructure.

The substructure is the part of the building that is

underneath the ground,
while
the superstructure is everything that is above
ground.

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Structure

168
Structure

169
Structure - Substructure

The purpose of the substructure of a building is to

transfer the loads of the superstructure to the soil
that is underneath. This is why the substructure is
right against the soil that supports it.
Now, it is important that you spend time working
with structural engineers to ensure that all support
beams, columns, and foundations are incorporated
properly to ensure that nothing will collapse within
the substructure.

170
Structure - Substructure

Most of the time, the substructure is made from

plain cement concrete or reinforced cement
concrete. Once that is in place, stones, bricks, or
additional concrete is added until it all reaches the
plinth level. It is necessary for a damp-proof
course to be laid on top, so that moisture doesn’t
penetrate any part of the substructure.

171
Structure - Superstructure

The superstructure of a building is where people will

spend most of their time. This area includes the first
and second floors inside a home and any number of
floors in larger buildings. The superstructure
includes beams, columns, finishes, windows, doors,
the roof, floors, and anything else.

The parts of the superstructure are much lengthier

than the parts of the substructure. This shouldn’t be
surprising since the superstructure is much larger
than the substructure.
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 Structure – Superstructure parts

• Floor
• Roof
• Lintel
• Parapet
• Sun Shade
• Beams
• Columns
• Walls
• Doors, Windows, and Other Openings
• Stairs, Ramps, Lifts, and Other Vertical Transportation
Structures
• All the Finishing Touches includes trim, flooring materials,
curtains, blinds, and even the heating and cooling units.
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Structure – Substructure characteristic

• The structure that is below the damp proof

course that includes the ground floor and
foundation
• The structure that is below the plinth
• This structure transfers the loads that are
received from the superstructure and transfers it
to the foundation
• Includes the foundation, pier, and abutment

174
Structure – Superstructure characteristic

• The internal and external elements of a building

that is over the substructure
• The structure from the top of the plinth to the top
of the building
• This structure transfers the loads from the upper
part of the building to the substructure
• The structures above the baring and the wearing
surface
• Includes walls, beams, columns, windows, doors

175
Structure

176
Structure

As you can see, both the substructure and the

superstructure are important parts of buildings and
you cannot successfully have a building, or a
home, without both of them in place.
If you try to build just a superstructure without a
substructure underneath, the entire superstructure
will eventually collapse under the weight of the very
top.

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Structure

Therefore, make sure that your substructure is

always very stable before you add an even sturdier
superstructure on top.
That is the only way that you will have a home, or a
building, withstand the elements and everything
else that Mother Nature and humans bring its way.

178
 MODULE 14
APPLICABLE CODE & STANDARD

179
Applicable Code & Standard – Piling Works

Standards and other codes and publications relevant to this

section of the Specification shall include but not limited to:

1. BS EN 1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical Design

2. BS EN 996 Piling Equipment – Safety Requirements
3. BS EN 10219 Cold Formed Welded Structural Hollow
Sections of Nonalloy and Fine Grain Steels
4. BS EN ISO 15614-1 Specification and Qualification of
Welding Procedures for Metallic Materials, Welding
procedure test
5. BS EN 1011 Welding, Recommendations for Welding of
Metallic Materials
180
Applicable Code & Standard – Concrete Works

Concrete for the Works shall comply in all respects with BS 6349-1
supplemented by BS EN 206 and BS 8500-2.
Standards and other codes and publications relevant to this section of
the Specification shall include but not limited to:

1. BS 6349-1 Marine structures. Code of practice for general criteria

2. BS EN 197-1 Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity
criteria for common cements
3. BS EN 12620 Aggregates for concrete
4. BS EN 1008 Mixing water for concrete. Specification for sampling,
testing and assessing the suitability of water, including water
recovered from processes in the concrete industry, as mixing
water for concrete

181
Applicable Code & Standard – Concrete Works

Concrete for the Works shall comply in all respects with BS

6349-1 supplemented by BS EN 206 and BS 8500-2.
Standards and other codes and publications relevant to
this section of the Specification shall include but not limited
to:
1. BS EN 10080 Steel for the reinforcement of concrete.
Weldable reinforcing steel.
2. BS 4483 Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete
Specification
3. BS EN 1367-4 Tests for thermal and weathering
properties of aggregates. Determination of drying
shrinkage
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Thank You
183