1

Introduction to Mechatronics
Course Code: MEng5271

Instructor: Aregahegn Adane

Definition
Mechatronics is a natural stage in the evolutionary process of modern engineering design.

The development of the computer, and then the microcomputer, embedded computers, and
associated information technologies and software advances, made mechatronics an
imperative in the latter part of the twentieth century.

The word, mechatronics, is composed of “mecha” from mechanism and the “tronics” from
electronics. In other words, technologies and developed products will be incorporating
electronics more and more into mechanisms.

Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of mechanical engineering, with

electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing of
industrial products and processes.
Key Elements of Mechatronics
 The study of mechatronic systems can be divided into the following areas of specialty:

I. Physical Systems Modeling,

II. Sensors and Actuators,

III. Signals and Systems,

IV. Computers and Logic Systems,

V. Software and Data Acquisition

Dynamic System Modeling
In solving engineering problems, there is a need to understand and determine the
dynamic response of a physical system that may consist of several components.

These efforts involve modeling, analysis, and simulation of physical systems.

Dynamic systems and control involves the analysis, design, and control of physical
engineering systems that are often composed of interacting mechanical, electrical, and
fluid subsystem components.

Definitions:

System: A combination of components acting together to perform a specified objective.

The components or interacting elements have cause-and-effect (or input-output)
relationships.
cont’d
Dynamic system: A system where the current output variables (or dynamic variables)
depend on the initial conditions (or stored energy) of the system and/or the previous input
variables. The dynamic variables of the system (e.g., displacement, velocity, voltage,
pressure) vary with time.

Modeling: The process of applying the appropriate fundamental physical laws in order to
derive mathematical equations that adequately describe the physics of the engineering
system. Dynamic systems are represented by differential equations.

Mathematical model: A mathematical description of a dynamic system’s behavior,

which is usually a set of linear or nonlinear ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
cont’d
Simulation: The process of obtaining the system’s dynamic response by numerically
solving the governing modeling equations. Simulation involves numerical integration of
the model’s differential equations and is performed by digital computers and simulation
software.

System analysis: The use of analytical calculations or numerical simulation tools to

determine the system response in order to assess its performance.

General classification of Dynamic system:

1) Distributed vs. Lumped, 2) Linear vs. Non-linear dynamic system, 3) continuous time vs.
discrete time, 4) time variant vs. time invariant.
cont’d
Continuous time vs. Discrete time : A continuous-time system involves variables and
functions that are defined for all time, whereas a discrete time system involves variables
that are defined only at discrete time points.

Continuous-time systems consisting of variables in the “analog” domain, such as position

x(t). Discrete-time systems consist of variables in the “digital” domain, such as the
sampled (measured) position x(kTs) that exists only at the discrete-time points t = Ts, t =
2Ts, … , t = kTs where Ts is the sampling interval.

Time-Varying vs. Time-Invariant Systems: In a time-varying system the system

parameters change with time (e.g., the friction coefficient changes with time).
cont’d
In a time-invariant system the parameters remain constant. The reader should not confuse
the variation of the system parameters with the variation of the dynamic variables.

Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems: Suppose we have a system or input-output relationship

that is described by the function y = f (u) where u is the input and y is the output. Linear
systems obey the .Homogeneity/Scaling and superposition property:
1. If y1 = f (u1), then ay1 = f (au1), where a = any constant.
2. If y1 = f (u1) and y2 = f (u2), then y1 + y2 = f (u1 + u2)

Non-linear systems do not obey either of property.

cont’d
(1)

(2)

(3)

Equation (1)is a second-order linear ODE because the dynamic variable x and its
derivatives appear as linear combinations.

Equation (2) is linear as x and its derivatives appear in linear combinations. Because the
coefficient changes with time.

Equation (3) is a nonlinear ODE because of the term.

Transfer function vs. State-Space
There are two fundamental approach to modeling and analyzing dynamic system.

1. Transfer function approach and,

2. State-Space approach.
Transfer Function Approach

Transfer Function. The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant differential-

equation system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under
the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the differential equation

Where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer function of this
system is the ratio of the Laplace-transformed output to the Laplace-transformed
input when all initial conditions are zero, or expressed as follows:
Transfer Function Approach

By using the concept of a transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by
algebraic equations in s.

If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth-order system.

Usually applicable to represent linear system.

State-Space Approach
The modern trend in dynamic systems is toward greater complexity (MIMO); complex
tasks and high accuracy.

Such systems may be linear or nonlinear and may be time invariant or time varying. A
very powerful approach to treating such systems is the state-space approach, based on
the concept of state.

State variables: The state variables of a dynamic system are the variables
making up the smallest set of variables that determines the state of the dynamic
system. If at least n variables are needed to completely describe the behavior of a
dynamic system.
cont’d
State vector: If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behavior of a
given dynamic system, then those state variables can be considered the n components of a
vector x called a state vector.

State-space: The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of the is called a
state space.

State-space equations: In state-space analysis, we are concerned with three types of

variables that are involved in the modeling of dynamic systems: input variables, output
variables, and state variables.

 If a system is linear and time invariant and if it is described by n state variables,

r input variables, and m output variables, then the state equation will have the form:
cont’d

and the output equation will have the form

cont’d
 Where the coefficients ] are constants, some of which may be zero. If we use vector
matrix expression, this equation can be written as:
cont’d
Matrices A, B, C, and D are called the state matrix, input matrix, output matrix, and
direct transmission matrix respectively. Vectors x, u, and y are the state vector, input
vector, and output vector, respectively.

(In control systems analysis and design, the input matrix B and input vector u are called
the control matrix and control vector, respectively.)

Figure: Block diagram of the linear, continuous-time system represented instate space.
cont’d
Transfer matrix: Next consider a Multi-Input-Multiple-Output system. Assume that
there are r inputs and m outputs.

Define the transfer matrix relates the output to the inputs or:

Where;
Mechanical System Modeling
A mechanical system is composed of inertia, stiffness, and energy-dissipation elements.
In addition, it may possess mechanical transformers, such as gears or levers.

Inertia elements are either lumped masses (translational mechanical systems) or moments
of inertia (rotational mechanical systems). They are easily identified in Newton’s second
law.

(translational motion)

(rotational motion)

Stiffness elements: When a mechanical element stores energy due to a deformation or

change in shape, it can be modeled as a stiffness element or Spring element.
cont’d
A linear spring is a mechanical element that can be deformed by an external force or
torque such that the deformation is directly proportional to the force or torque applied to
the element.

Energy-dissipation elements: When a mechanical element dissipates energy due to its

motion, it can be modeled as a friction element. Just as we used a “spring element” to
model stiffness in a mechanical system, we can use a “damper” (or “dashpot”) element to
model friction.
Example

 Apply Newton’s second law and derive the differential equation of motion (system dynamics).
 Determine the transfer function form.
 Determine the state space representation of the system

Figure: A mass–spring–damper system: (a) physical system and (b) free-body diagram
Exercise: 1

Figure: A quarter-car model: (a) physical system and (b) free-body diagram.
Exercise: 2

Figure: (a) Schematic diagram of the seat-suspension system for Example 2.3. (b) Mechanical
model for the seat-suspension system.
Electrical System Modeling
This section is concerned with mathematical modeling and the response analysis of
electrical systems and electromechanical systems.

Electrical systems and mechanical systems (as well as other systems, such as fluid
systems) are very often described by analogous mathematical models.

Basic elements of electrical system is classified as passive elements and active elements:
First review three passive types of elements of electrical systems which are: resistance,
capacitance, and inductance elements.

These elements are passive elements, because, although they can store or dissipate energy
that is already present in the circuit, they cannot introduce additional energy into the
circuit.
Resistance Elements
Active elements an electrical circuit are: Voltage and Current. (because they can
introduce energy into the circuit).

Resistance elements: The resistance R of a linear resistor is given by;

Where is the voltage across the resistor and is the current through the resistor. The unit of
resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Resistors do not store electric energy in any form, but instead dissipate it as heat.
Capacitance Elements
Capacitance elements: Two conductors separated by a non-conducting medium form a
capacitor, so two metallic plates separated by a very thin dielectric material form a
capacitor. The capacitance C is a measure of the quantity of charge that can be stored for
a given voltage across the plates, and given as;

Where q is the quantity of charge stored and is the voltage across the capacitor. The unit
of capacitance is the farad (F).

Note that: ,
cont’d
Furthermore;

, or

Therefore;

Inductance elements. If a circuit lies in a time-varying magnetic field, an electromotive

force is induced in the circuit. The inductive effects can be classified as self-inductance
and mutual inductance.
Inductance Elements
Self-inductance: is that property of a single coil that appears when the magnetic field set
up by the current in the coil links to the coil itself. The magnitude of the induced voltage
is proportional to the rate of change of flux linking the circuit.

Self-inductance, or simply inductance, L, is the proportionality constant between the

induced voltage volts and the rate of change of current (or change in current per second)
amperes per second; that is:

, ,
The unit of inductance is the henry (H).
cont’d
Mutual inductance refers to the influence between inductors that results from the
interaction of their fields. If two inductors are involved in an electrical circuit, each may
come under the influence of the magnetic field of the other inductor.

Voltage and current sources: A voltage source is a device that causes a specified voltage
to exist between two points in a circuit. The voltage may be time varying or time
invariant.

A current source causes a specified current to flow through a wire containing this source.
Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits
Ohm's law: Ohm's law states that the current in a circuit is proportional to the total
electromotive force (emf) acting in the circuit and inversely proportional to the total
resistance of the circuit.

Series circuits: The total voltage in series connected circuit is the direct sum of
individual voltage drop across each resistor.
cont’d
Parallel circuits: The total current in parallel connected circuit is the direct sum of
individual current passage across the resistor.
cont’d
Kirchhoff's laws: In solving circuit problems that involve many electromotive forces,
resistances, capacitances, inductances, and so on, it is often necessary to use Kirchhoff's
laws, of which there are two: the current law (node law) and the voltage law (loop law).

Kirchhoff's current law (node law): A node in an electrical circuit is a point where three
or more wires are joined together. Kirchhoff's current law (node law) states that the
algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node is zero.
cont’d
Kirchhoff's voltage law (loop law): Kirchhoff's voltage law states that at any given
instant of time the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in an electrical circuit is
zero.
Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

The first step in analyzing circuit problems is to obtain mathematical models for the
circuits.

A mathematical model may consist of algebraic equations, differential equations, integro-

differential equations, and similar ones.
Example
Consider the circuit shown in the figure below, assume that the switch open for t < 0, and
closed at t = 0. Obtain the mathematical model for the circuit and obtain an equation for
the current?

Figure: Electrical circuit

cont’d
 By arbitrarily choosing the direction of the current around the loop as shown in the figure,
we obtain;

or

 Note: This is a mathematical model for the given circuit, and Let us solve the above
equation for the current , and take the Laplace transforms both sides:

, Note that; and we will have,

 Or ,

called Invers Laplace Transform.

Exercise: 1
• Consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure below. The circuit consists of an
inductance L (in henrys), a resistance R (in ohms), and a capacitance C (in farads).
Obtain the transfer function . Also, obtain a state-space representation of the system.

Figure: Electrical circuit

Exercise: 1
• Consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure below. The circuit consists of an
inductance L (in henrys), a resistance R (in ohms), and a capacitance C (in farads).
Obtain the transfer function . Also, obtain a state-space representation of the system.

Figure: Electrical circuit

Mathematical Modeling of Fluid Systems
 As the most versatile medium for transmitting signals and power, fluids-liquids or gases-
have wide usage in industry.

 In the engineering field, the term hydraulic describes fluid systems that use liquids and
pneumatic applies to those using air or gases.

 Mathematical models of fluid systems are generally nonlinear. However, if we assume that
the operation of a nonlinear system is near a normal operating point, then the system can be
linearized near the operating point, and the mathematical model can be made linear.

Thermal systems generally have distributed parameters. Mathematical models of

thermal systems normally involve partial differential equations.
cont’d
Gage pressure and absolute pressure: Gage pressure refers to the pressure that is
measured with respect to atmospheric pressure. It is the pressure indicated by a gage
above atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure is the sum of the gage and barometer pressures. Note that, in
engineering measurement, pressure is expressed in gage pressure. In theoretical
calculations, however, absolute pressure must be used.

In this section, we first review the Reynolds number, laminar flow, and turbulent flow.
cont’d
Reynolds number. The forces that affect fluid flow are due to gravity, buoyancy, fluid
inertia, viscosity, surface tension, and similar factors. In many flow situations, the forces
resulting from fluid inertia and viscosity are most significant.

The dimensionless ratio of inertia force to viscous force is called the Reynolds number.
Thus, a large Reynolds number indicates the dominance of inertia force and a small
number the dominance of viscosity. The Reynolds number R is given by;

Where, is the mass density of the fluid, is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, v is
the average velocity of flow, and D is a characteristic length (inner pipe diam.)
cont’d
Since the average velocity v for flow in a pipe is;

Where Q is the volumetric flow rate, A is the area of the pipe and D is the inside diameter
of the pipe, the Reynolds number for flow in pipes can be given by;
cont’d
Laminar flow and Turbulent flow: Flow dominated by viscosity forces is called laminar
flow and is characterized by a smooth, parallel-line motion of the fluid. When inertia
forces dominate, the flow is called turbulent flow and is characterized by an irregular and
eddy like motion of the fluid.

For a Reynolds number below 2000 (R < 2000), the flow is always laminar. For a
Reynolds number above 4000 (R > 4000), the flow is usually turbulent, except in special
cases.
cont’d
Resistance and capacitance of liquid-level systems: Consider the flow through a short
pipe with a valve connecting two tanks, as shown in the figure below.

The resistance R for liquid flow in such a pipe or restriction is defined as the change in
the level difference (the difference of the liquid levels of the two tanks) necessary to cause
a unit change in flow rate; that is:
cont’d
The capacitance C of a tank is defined to be the change in quantity of stored liquid
necessary to cause a unit change in the potential, or head. (The potential is the quantity
that indicates the energy level of the system.) Thus;

Note that the capacity () and the capacitance () are different. The capacitance of the tank
is equal to its cross-sectional area. If this is constant, the capacitance is constant for any
head.
cont’d
 If the operating condition as to the head and flow rate varies little for the period considered,
a mathematical model can easily be found in terms of resistance and capacitance. In the
present analysis, we assume that the liquid outflow from the valve is turbulent.

 Let us define some parameters

cont’d
The change in the liquid stored in the tank during seconds is equal to the net inflow to the
tank during the same seconds, so

Where C is the capacitance of the tank.

Measurement system
A system can be defined as an arrangement of parts within some boundary which work
together to provide some form of output from a specified input or inputs.

 A useful way of representing a system is as a block diagram. Within the

boundary described by the box outline is the system and inputs to the system are
shown by arrows entering the box and outputs by arrows leaving the box
cont’d
Often we are concerned with a number of linked systems. For example we might have a
CD player system linked to an amplifier system which in turn, is linked to a loudspeaker
system. We can then draw this as three interconnected boxes.

With the output from one system becoming the input to the next system, In drawing a
system as a series of interconnected blocks, it is necessary to recognize that the lines
drawn to connect boxes indicate a flow of information in the direction indicated by the
arrow and not necessarily physical connections.
Instrumentation systems
The purpose of an instrumentation system used for making measurements is to give the
user a numerical value corresponding to the variable being measured.

Thus a thermometer may be used to give a numerical value for the temperature of a
liquid.

Definition: An instrumentation system for making measurements has an input of the true
value of the variable being measured and an output of the measured value.
cont’d
The constituent elements of an instrumentation system:
An instrumentation system for making measurements consists of several elements which
are used to carry out particular functions. These functional elements are;

Sensor:
This is the element of the system which is effectively in contact with the process for which
a variable is being measured and gives an output which depends in some way on the value
of the variable and which can be used by the rest of the measurement system to give a value
to it.
cont’d
Signal processor:

This element takes the output from the sensor and converts it into a form which is suitable
for display or onward transmission in some control system.

The term signal conditioner is used for an element which converts the output of a sensor
into a suitable form for further processing .

Data presentation:

This presents the measured value in a form which enables an observer to recognize it. This
may be via a display, e.g. a pointer moving across the scale of a meter or perhaps
information on a visual display unit (VDU) .
cont’d
The term transducer is often used in relation to measurement systems. Transducers are
defined as an element that converts a change in some physical variable into a related
change in some other physical variable. It is generally used for an element that converts a
change in some physical variable into an electrical signal change.

Thus sensors can be transducers. However, a measurement system may use transducers,
in addition to the sensor, in other parts of the system to convert signals in one form to
another form.
Performance Terms
Performance terms The following are some of the more common terms used to define the
performance of measurement systems and functional elements.

1. Accuracy and error

2. Range

3. Precision, repeatability and reproducibility

4. Sensitivity

5. Stability
Displacement Sensors
Displacement sensor measure a linear displacement, measure an angular displacement,
detect motion, detect the presence of some object.

Displacement sensors fall into two groups: those that make direct contact with the object
being monitored, by spring loading or mechanical connection with the object, and those
which are non-contacting. (contact type and non-contact type).

For those linear displacement methods involving contact, there is usually a

sensing shaft which is in direct contact with the object being monitored, the
displacement of this shaft is then being monitored by a sensor.

This shaft movement may be used to cause changes in electrical voltage,

resistance, capacitance, or mutual inductance.
cont’d
For angular displacement methods involving mechanical connection, the rotation of a
shaft might directly drive, through gears, the rotation of the sensor element, this perhaps
generating an emf.

Non-contacting proximity sensors might consist of a beam of infrared light being

broken by the presence of the object being monitored, the sensor then giving a voltage
signal indicating the breaking of the beam, or perhaps the beam being reflected from the
object being monitored, the sensor giving a voltage indicating that the reflected beam has
been detected.

Contacting proximity sensors might be just mechanical switches which are tripped by the
presence of the object
Potentiometer
A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be
moved over the length of the element and connected.

With a constant supply voltage , the output voltage between terminals 1 and 2 is a
fraction of the input voltage, the fraction depending on the ratio of the resistance between
terminals 1 and 2 compared with the total resistance R of the entire length of the track
across which the supply voltage is connected.

𝒗𝟎 𝑹 𝟏𝟐
=
𝒗𝒔 𝑹
Angular potentiometer
Strain gauge
Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the application of force or
strain. They can be used for measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure, displacement,
acceleration etc.

When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the strain. The more
is the applied force, more is the strain and more is the increase in length of the wire.

Where is the initial length of the wire, and is the final length of the wire.

Application of force on the strain gauge foil (resistance wire), will result in deformation
(i.e. increment of foil length and decrement of foil diameter ).
Strain-gauged Element
Now, we know that resistance of the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As
the length of the conductor increases its resistance increase. This change in resistance
of the conductor can be measured easily and calibrated against the applied force.

 Strain gauges consist of a metal foil strip flat length of metal wire or a strip of semiconductor
material which can be stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp.

When the wire, foil (resistance wire), strip or semiconductor is stretched, its resistance R
changes. The fractional change in resistance is proportional to the strain
cont’d
Optical Encoders
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of an angular or linear
displacement. Position encoders can be grouped into two categories: incremental
encoders, which detect changes in displacement from some datum position, and absolute
encoders, which give the actual position.

Incremental encoder: the basic form of an incremental encoder for the measurement of
angular displacement of a shaft.

It consists of a disc which rotates along with the shaft. In the form shown, the rotatable
disc has a number of windows through which a beam of light can pass and be detected by
a suitable light sensor.
cont’d
When the shaft rotates and disc rotates, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with the
number of pulses being proportional to the angle through which the disc rotates.

The angular displacement of the disc, and hence the shaft rotating it, can thus be
determined by the number of pulses produced in the angular displacement from some
datum position.

With the incremental encoder, the number of pulses counted gives the angular
displacement, a displacement of, say, giving the same number of pulses whatever angular
position the shaft starts its rotation from.
cont’d
However, the absolute encoder gives an output in the form of a binary number of several
digits, each such number representing a particular angular position.

Incremental encoder
cont’d
Absolute encoders
Optical proximity sensors
Similarly the rotating disc has four concentric circles of slots and four sensors to detect
the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the
sensors is a number in the binary code, each such number corresponding to a particular
angular position. A number of forms of binary code are used.

Optical proximity sensors: classified in two categories

1. Transmissive types of proximity sensor

2. Reflective types of proximity sensor

In both types the radiation emitter is generally a light-emitting diode (LED). The

radiation detector might be a phototransistor.

cont’d
Optical proximity sensors:
Reflective & Transmitive
Capacitive Proximity Switch
Proximity switch: A proximity switch that can be used with metallic and non-metallic
objects is the capacitive proximity switch. The capacitance of a pair of plates separated by
some distance depends on the separation, the smaller the separation the higher the
capacitance.

The sensor of the capacitive proximity switch is just one of the plates of the capacitor, the
other plate being the metal object whose proximity is to be detected. Thus the proximity
of the object is detected by a change in capacitance.
cont’d
Capacitive Proximity Switch
Speed sensors
The following are examples of sensors that can be used to monitor linear and angular
speeds.

Optical methods: Linear speeds can be measured by determining the time between when
the moving object breaks one beam of radiation and when it breaks a second beam some
measured distance away.

Breaking the first beam can be used to start an electronic clock and breaking the second
beam to stop the clock.

Tachogenerator: The basic tachogenerator consists of a coil mounted in a magnetic

field.
cont’d
When the coil rotates electromagnetic induction results in an alternating emf being
induced in the coil. The faster the coil rotates the greater the size of the alternating emf
Thus the size of the alternating emf is a measure of the angular speed.
Project
Ultrasonic level gauge (Ultrasonic distance sensor)