Alternative energy sources

HMK
Why move away from fossil fuel base?

• Depletion of fossil fuels

• Environmental hazards

• Health hazards
 A case for environment
• Green house effects;

• Climate change:

• Depletion of ozone layer increasing short-

wavelength radiations with their carcinogenic
effects
 Green house effect

• Green house gases:

 carbon dioxide,

nitrous oxide,

methane,

chloro fluoro carbons

• Green house gases are the temperature stabilisers of the earth’s

atmosphere by forming a heat blanket in the lower atmosphere

• Temperature stabilisation is by trapping radiated heat from the

earth’s surface by these green house gases.
 Global warming

• Due to emissions from the fossil fuel based systems,

• the green house gases in the atmosphere increase

• As a result, the average temperature of the earth is

becoming higher
 Effects of Global warming

• changes in rainfall patterns

• rise in sea level

• impacts on flora and fauna

• impacts on human health

 Alternative Energy Resources.
• These are energy resources that are more
renewable or more environmentally friendly in
comparison to fossil fuels

• Currently include the following:

solar,
 wind,
geothermal,
hydropower,
nuclear,
and biomass.
 Solar energy

• Solar energy–can be used to

heat buildings and water
and provide electricity

• Passive solar heating uses

large south facing windows
to collect the sun’s energy
 Solar energy

• Solar cells can collect and

convert the sun’s energy
into electricity for
residential use
 Insolation

• It is a quantity indicating the amount of incident solar

power on a unit surface,

• the unit surface is measured in 1m2

• insolation is commonly expressed in units of kW/m 2

• At the earth’s outer atmosphere,

• the solar insolation on a 1 m2 surface oriented normal

to the sun’s rays is called SOLAR CONSTANT and its
2
 Insolation

• Due to atmospheric effects,

• the peak solar insolation incident on a terrestrial

surface oriented normal to the sun at noon on a
clear day is on the order of 1 kW/m2

• 1KW/m2 is generally called Peak Sun

• It is less than the SOLAR CONSTANT because of the

atmospheric interference
 Irradiance
• It is an amount of solar energy received per unit surface in
unit time expressed in kWh/m2

• the peak solar irradiation incident on a terrestrial surface

oriented normal to the sun at noon on a clear day is often
called PEAK SUN HOURS (PSH)

• PSH is the number of equivalent hours/day the solar

insolation is at its peak level of 1 kW/m2

• PSH is usually for only 5 hours/day

• 2
Factors affecting Energy incident on a panel

• Latitude and longitude of the geographical location

• Climatic conditions such as presence of clouds, water

vapor etc

• Time of the day

• Time of the year

• Angle of tilt
 Solar thermal technology:

• Solar thermal technologies uses the sun to generate heat

directly and include the following:
1. Solar concentrator power systems:
• They generate electricity with heat

• Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors and lenses to

concentrate and focus sunlight onto a receiver

• The receiver absorbs and converts sunlight into heat

• This heat is then transported by means of heated water

through pipes to a generator where it is converted into
2. Flat plate solar collectors:
• They are usually large flat boxes with one or more glass
covers

• Inside the boxes are dark colored metal plates that absorb
heat

• Air or water flows through the tubes and is warmed by heat

stored in the plates

3. Passive solar heating:

• Passive solar heating design methods use features such as

large south facing windows and building materials that
Application
• Let us take a simple application where this technology is used The
application is a water heating system

• Let us calculate the power required for raising temperature of a

100-liter tank water from the room temperature by 20 oC

• The energy required = Volume of water in liters x Rise in temp x

Specific heat of water. Specific heat of water = 1.16 kWh/ oC /m3 =
1.16 Wh/oC /Liter

• Hence, the energy required = 100 Liters x 20 oC x 1.16 Wh/oC /Liter =

2320 Wh

• If we assume 5 Peak Sun Hours in a day, then the power required in

a day to rise the temperature of 100 liters of water by 20 oC = 2320
• We know that the standard insolation on a clear day
is 1000 watts/m2

• With 20% efficiency of the thermal heater, the

insolation available is 200 watts/m2

• Hence, the area required to get 464 watts of power

= 2.32 m2

• We can design the solar thermal collector to have

an area of 2.5 m2
 Solar energy at a panel
Step 1.
• Find sun’s position with respect to earth
• Sun’s position is a function of;
 latitude,
 day of the year,
 hour angle (ω )

• Sun rises at 0o and sets at 180o

• 180o =12hours

• 1 hour = 15o
2. Find the available solar energy or irradiance with no
atmospheric influence/effect, Ho

• This is a function of sun position

• Ho= f (Sun Position)

3. Find the solar energy available on horizontal surface

with atmospheric influence/effects, HOA

• This is a function of HO and clearness index KT

4. Find the actual solar energy available at the
panel, Ht

• This is a function of HOA and the tilt factor RD

• Ht = RD HOA
• To install energy collecting device it is required to find out
the energy available at a place

• The energy available is determined in KWH/m2/day (defined

as H).

• Energy curve gives variation of H with respect to days in year.

• H (KWH/m2/day) on earth is a function of

 Latitude (φ)

 Day of year (n)

 Atmospheric effects (clearness index) Kt

• Kt is evaluated by statistical methods

 Photovoltaic(PV) Solar Cells

• A very important application of light energy for the

generation of electrical power comes from the
photovoltaic (PV) solar cell

• A PV solar cell is made up of n- and p-type materials

of either the same or different compounds
• When n- and p-type Si are joined together, an electric
field is developed at their interface

• The n-type is electron donor & the p-type is electron

acceptor accepting an electron from the lattice

• The loss of an electron results in delocalized electrons in

the crystal

• The gain of an electron from the crystal creates a

vaccancy where the electron should be
• For example, photovoltaic solar cells made out of n
-Si and p-Si are commercially available

• Pure silicon material is made n-type (electron

donating) by doping it with phosphorous and p-type
(electron accepting) by doping it with boron

• The dopant is a material with trivalent charge that is

added to an intrinsic semiconductor to get an
extrinsic semiconductor with improved electrical
conductivity
• When the junction is illuminated with photons of
energy,

• excited electrons are forced from the donor n-type

• through holes to the p- type material

• The flow of electron from the n-type to the p-type

causes a current to flow in the opposite direction

• This generates an e.m.f which can be harnessed to run a

motor or light a bulb
• In case of solar energy the sun is the source of energy

• The output of sun is 2.8×1023KW

• But the energy reaching the earth is 1.5×1018 KWH/year.

• To install energy collecting device (PV cells or thermal
plates) it is required to find out the energy available
at a place

• When light travels from vacuum to outer atmosphere

to earth, solar energy is lost because of following
reasons:

1. Scattering:
• The rays collide with particles present in atmosphere

2. Absorption:
• Because of water vapor there is absorption.
3. Cloud cover:
• The light rays are diffused because of clouds.

4. Reflection:
• When the light rays hit the mountains present on
the earth surface there is reflection.

5. Climate:
• Latitude of the location, day (time in the year) also
effect the amount of solar energy received by the
place.
• The above mentioned factors determine the amount
of power falling on the surface

• Amount of power that is falling on unit surface area is

defined as insolation

• The graph below gives the amount of power present

in different wavelengths of radiation

• It can be seen from the graph that 50% of solar

energy is in the form of thermal energy
ii. Wind–

turns giant wind turbines that

produce electricity
• Because it is invisible, it is not easily measured without
special instruments

• Wind velocity is affected by the trees, buildings, hills and

valleys around us

• Wind is a diffuse energy source that cannot be contained

or stored for use elsewhere or at another time.
• Like the weather in general, the wind can be
unpredictable

• It varies from place to place, and from moment to

moment

• The wind-mill contains three blades about a horizontal

axis installed on a tower

• A turbine connected to a generator is fixed about the

horizontal axis
 Classification of Wind-mills:

• Wind turbines are classified into two general types:

Horizontal axis and Vertical axis

• A horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on

an axis parallel to the ground as shown in the above
figure

• A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an

axis perpendicular to the ground
• iii. Hydropower–

• the energy of water

stored behind dams can
be turned into
electricity.
• iv) Nuclear Power–

uses the process of fission to release

energy to make electricity.
v)Biomass –

• burning trash to produce electricity

• Decomposition of decaying matter by micro-organisms to

release biogas
 Batteries
Introduction
• Batteries are complex electrochemical devices, composed of
distinct cells,

• that generate electrical energy from the chemical energy of their

cell components

• A battery cell consists primarily of a metallic anode (negative

electrode),

• a metallic oxide cathode (positive electrode)

• and an electrolyte material that facilitates the chemical reaction

 Introduction con’t

• Batteries are classified and distinguished according to their

chemical components

• Batteries are referred to as wet or dry cells, primary or

secondary

 In wet cell batteries, the electrolyte is a liquid

 In dry cell batteries, the electrolyte is contained in a paste,

gel or other solid matrix within the battery
 Introduction
• Primary batteries,

 contain cells in which the chemical reactions are

irreversible, and they therefore cannot be recharged.

• Secondary batteries,

 the chemical reactions are reversible and external energy

sources can be repeatedly applied to recharge the battery
cells

• Batteries come in a variety of shapes

 Types and Uses of Batteries
Battery type Shape Uses

Wet cells

Lead-acid Rectangular Cars, motor cycles, boats

Dry cells-Primary

Zinc-carbon , alkaline Cylindrical, rectangular, Flash lights, radios, toys,

button tape recorders

Mercuric oxide, Silver Button, cylindrical Hearing aids, watches,

oxide, calculators, cameras

Dry cells- Secondary

Nickel-Cadmium, Lead-acid Cylindrical, button Shavers, phones, vacuum

cleaners
 Types and Uses of Batteries
• Batteries differ in their chemical composition, energy
storage capacity, voltage output, and life span

• These factors affect their overall performance, utility

and cost

• Because of their different intended uses, consumer

batteries are usually distinguished as:

 automotive batteries(wet cells)

 household batteries(dry cells)
 Lead-acid storage batteries(wet cells)

• Lead-acid storage batteries are used in automobiles,

motorcycles, boats and several industrial applications

• They are primarily used to provide starting, lighting and ignition

for automotive products

• These are wet cell batteries consisting of lead electrodes in a

liquid sulfuric acid electrolyte

• They are composed of lead anode and lead dioxide cathode

Lead-acid storage batteries(wet cells)

• Use sulfuric acid as the electrolyte,

• Have polypropylene plastic casing,

• The typical useful lifetime of lead-acid batteries is 3 to 4

years.
• The charging is done in an automobile by its electrical
generator or alternator.

• During the discharging operation, sulphuric acid is

consumed

• During the charging operation, water is converted into

sulphuric acid
House hold batteries(dry cells)

• Dry cell batteries contain electrodes composed of a variety

of potentially hazardous metals including Cd, Hg, Ni, Ag, Pb,
Li and Zn.

• In addition to electrodes and electrolytes, batteries also

contain other materials that are added to control the
chemical reactions within the battery.
 House hold batteries(dry cells)

• Hg is added to the Zn anode of primary cells (e.g. alkaline,

Zn-carbon) to reduce corrosion and to inhibit the buildup of
potentially explosive hydrogen by forming Hg-hydrogen

• In addition, Hg helps to prevent the batteries from self-

discharging and leaking
• The above dry cell is capable of delivering 1.5 V and the cell
reactions can be represented as:

• Anode: Zn Zn2+ +2e- (oxidation)

• Cathode: 2 MnO2 + 2 H2O + 2 e- 2 MnO ( OH ) + 2 OH-

(reduction)

Cell reaction: Zn + 2 MnO2 + 2 H2O Zn2+ + 2 MnO ( OH) + 2

OH
• MnO2 is called the 'depolariser',

• since it prevents the formation of H2 at the cathode by

preferentially getting reduced at the cathode

• Once discharged, the dry cell cannot be charged for reuse

• Dry cells deteriorate on storage due to local action and also

due to the evaporation of water from the electrolyte

• Zn2+ + 2OH- + 2NH4CI Zn (NH3 )2Cl2 (s) + 2 H2O

 Recycling Used Batteries

• Used batteries cannot be recycled in the same sense that glass and
plastics are recycled into new products

• The battery components that can be reclaimed and re-used

include metals (Pb, Hg, Ag, Ni, Cd, steel) and plastic (e.g., the
battery case of auto mobile batteries)

• The reclaimed materials may then be recycled into new battery

components or manufactured into other products

• Programs for household batteries essentially focus primarily on

 Recycling of auto mobile batteries

• The sulfuric acid can be reclaimed and used in fertilizer or

neutralized for disposal

• The plastic battery case can be recycled into new cases or other
recycled plastic products

• All lead-containing components are loaded into furnaces in

which the lead is melted and extracted

• The furnace residue is further processed in blast furnaces to

recover more of the lead

• The slag that remains still contains Pb, must be tested prior to