EE 462

ELECTRIC DRIVES
Compiled by: Prof. Philip Yaw Okyere
Delivered by: Dr. Francis Boafo Effah
Email: fbeffah.coe@knust.edu.gh
Mobile: +233209408218,+233241216264
 UNIT 3A
ELECTRIC BRAKING

2
Introduction
• Braking of electric drives can be achieved using either
electrical or
(electro) mechanical means.

3
• Compared to mechanical braking, advantages of electric
braking are:
- Little maintenance is required (mechanical braking requires
adjustment and replacement of brake linings).
- No dust is produced (the wear of mechanical brakes
produces dust).
- A portion of the stored energy (kinetic or potential) may be
returned back to the supply.
- Braking is smooth.

4
Introduction Cont’d
• The disadvantages are as follows:
It normally cannot provide a holding torque.

It imposes stressful electrical and mechanical

transients.

5
Introduction Cont’d
• The current during braking can damage the motor windings as
well as the power converters.

• The mechanical stresses can cause damage to the bearings,

coupling and the rotor itself.

• The braking system needs to be designed to ensure safe

operation.

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Introduction Cont’d
Braking is employed under the following
two circumstances:
1. While the drive is slowing down or stopping.
The objective can be any of the following:
 To reduce the time taken to stop or slow down to a lower
speed.
 To stop exactly at specified points e.g. in lifts.
 To feed power back to the supply.

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Introduction Cont’d
2. While lowering loads of high gravitational energy such as
hoists, cranes and vehicles on a downward grade.

The objectives are

 To control the speed at which the load comes down and to
limit it to a safe value.
 To feed power back to the supply.

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Introduction Cont’d
Generally, we can group all braking methods
into three types.

Regenerative braking
• The motor is operated as a generator which is still connected
to the supply network.
• Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, part of
which is returned to the supply. The rest is lost as heat in the
motor winding.
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Regenerative braking Cont’d
• An example is shown on the next slide, where an electric
motor is driving a trolley bus uphill and downhill.

• In the uphill direction, motor speed, motor torque and load

torque are all positive.

• The power flow is from power source to electric machine and

the electric machine is motoring. This is first quadrant
operation.

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11
Regenerative braking Cont’d
• In the downhill direction, the speed is still positive and the
load torque which aids the motion becomes negative.
• In the steady state conditions, the direction of the motor
torque is always opposite to the direction of the load torque,
so the motor produces a negative torque.
• The power flow is from electric machine to power source and
the electric machine is generating.

12
Introduction Cont’d
Dynamic or rheostatic braking
• Motor is operated as a generator.

• Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy

which is dissipated as heat in the machine winding or in
resistors connected across their terminals as electrical
load.

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Introduction Cont’d
Dynamic or rheostatic braking

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Dynamic or rheostatic braking
• For example if an electric motor is disconnected from
the power source, it continues to rotate for a period of
time until its stored kinetic energy is totally dissipated
as rotational losses.

• How fast the braking is depends on how fast the kinetic

energy is dissipated.

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Dynamic or rheostatic braking Cont’d
• With dynamic braking, the kinetic energy is converted into
electrical energy and quickly dissipated as heat in the machine
winding or the resistors.

• While the machine is stopping, the direction of its speed does

not change but the direction of its torque reverses.

• Thus the machine operates in the second quadrant in the

braking mode.

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Introduction Cont’d
Plugging or reverse current braking
• Motor is reconnected so as to make it tend to drive in the
opposite direction.

• In case it is required to bring the drive system to rest, it is

necessary to disconnect the supply exactly at the instant when
the motor stops otherwise it will continue to move in the
reverse direction.

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Introduction Cont’d
Plugging or reverse current braking

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Reverse current braking cont’d
• This is the most inefficient technique of braking because not
only is the electrical energy converted from the mechanical
energy dissipated as heat but also the electrical energy which
is drawn from the supply is similarly wasted.

• When used to stop a motor, the machine operates in the

second quadrant during the braking.

19
Braking of dc motors during lowering of
loads
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor

• The motor is switched on to lower the load.

• That is the motor connection should be such that it will lower

a light load (or a load that opposes motion).

20
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
Separately excited motor cont’d
• Taking the speed as positive when drive is lowering a light
load, the motor torque Te is initially positive and the load
torque TL is always negative.
• Therefore initially, the motor torque Te and the load torque TL
act together to accelerate the motor as shown on the next slide
(Fig. 3.2 a)
• The motor operates in the first quadrant during the
acceleration.
21
22
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
Separately excited motor Cont’d
• The emf increases during the acceleration and attains a value
equal to the applied voltage when the increasing speed
reaches the ideal no-load speed.

• The armature current and hence the motor torque Te become

zero.

• The downward motion is then sustained solely by the

downward moving load.
23
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor Cont’d
• When E increasing still becomes greater than the terminal
voltage V, the motor generates and develops a braking torque
which opposes the load torque as shown on slide 21 (Fig.
3.2.b).
• The drive attains a steady state speed when the braking torque
becomes equal to the load torque.
• The equation of motion: d
Te  J  (TL )
dt
24
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor Cont’d
• The speed-torque equation is obtained from the two dc
machine basic equations and the armature voltage equation:

Te  kI a
E  k
V  E  I a ( Ra  R )
V ( Ra  R )
  Te
k (k ) 2
25
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor cont’d
• The speed-torque characteristic of the motor is shown on the
next slide.

• The motor is supposed to operate in quadrant 1 to lower a

light load which is positive because it opposes motion

• And in quadrant 2 to lower a heavy load which is negative

because it aids motion.
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27
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor cont’d
• The figure on the next slide shows the characteristics of the
motor when both upward and downward motions are
combined for unidirectional gravitational load
• For the unidirectional torque gravitational load, the load
torque is unidirectional in the two directions of motion, and so
is the motor torque.

28
29
• An example of unidirectional torque gravitational load is
shown on the next slide.
• The motor operates in quadrant 1 when moving upward and in
quadrant 4 when moving downward.

• Here the speed is bidirectional.

• Therefore if a positive terminal voltage is applied to move a
load up then negative voltage must be applied to move a light
load down.

30
31
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor cont’d

• The figure on the next slide shows the characteristics of

the motor when both upward and downward motions
are combined for bidirectional torque gravitational load.

• Here the speed is unidirectional

32
33
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor cont’d
• An example of a bidirectional torque gravitational load is
shown on the next slide.
• The motor operates in quadrant 1 when moving uphill and in
quadrant 2 when moving downhill.
• We note that the connection to send a light load downhill is
the same as the connection to send a load uphill because the
speed is unidirectional

34
35
Regenerative braking of dc shunt motor or
Separately excited motor cont’d

• With this braking, the steady state speed cannot be less than
the ideal no load speed.

• The speed can be varied by shifting the speed-torque curve

along the speed axis if voltage control is used for the speed
regulation

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• Or by inserting resistance in the armature circuit to modify the
speed-torque characteristic as shown in figures shown on
previous slides.

• For the unidirectional torque gravitational load by reducing

the terminal voltage, the motor can be brought to a stop, its
direction of rotation can be reversed or motor can be operated
under holding conditions.

37
• The figure on the next slide shows the characteristics of the
motor driving a unidirectional torque load.

• At operating point 1, the machine is motoring and the motion

is upward.

• To achieve the downward operation, the voltage applied to the

armature is reduced from V1 to V2.

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• If the change is done quickly, the operating point moves
rapidly from 1 to 2 because the speed of the motor cannot
change suddenly due to system inertia.

• The operating point then moves from 2 to 5 where the steady-

state condition is met: load torque = motor torque.

• From operating point 2 to 3, the machine generates

(regenerative braking),

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• From 3 to 4 the machine motors but speed decreases because
TL is greater than Te and
• From 4 to 5 the machine generates but power is wasted.
• At operating point 4, the motor speed is zero.
• To stop it at this point, the supply should be cut off and
mechanical brakes should be applied to keep the motor at
standstill. Why
• Holding position is attained when the load torque is equal to
the motor torque and speed of the motor is zero.

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 Example 1
A 440 V, dc shunt motor has a rated armature current of 76 A
at a speed of 1000 rev/min. The armature resistance of the
motor is 0.377 Ω, the field resistance is 110 Ω, and the
rotational losses are 1 kW. The load torque of the motor is
bidirectional. Calculate the following:
(a) No-load speed of the motor
(b) Motor speed, where the armature current is 60 A during
regenerative braking
(c) Motor torque during regenerative braking
(d) Power delivered by the source under the normal motor
operation
(e) Generated power during regenerative braking
(f) Total losses under regenerative braking
(g) Power delivered to the source under regenerative braking
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 Solution
An example of bidirectional load torque is shown in Fig. 3.1.
The load torque is positive when bus is moving uphill and is
negative when it is moving downhill.

During motor operation under rated conditions

E  V  I a Ra  440  0.377  76  411 .35 V

The field constant k which remains constant is

E 411 .35
k    3.93 V/rad/s
 2 1000 60
(a) The no-load speed
V 440
o    111 .96 rad/s and N o  1069.1 rev/min
k 3.93
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 (b) During regenerative braking motor torque is negative
hence Ia is negative (or use the fact that the machine
acts as a generator). Therefore
Eb  V  I a Ra  440  0.377  60  462.62V
E 462.62
b    117 .726 rad/s and
k 3.93
N b  1124.1 rev/min
(c) The motor torque
Tb  kI a  3.93  60  235.8 Nm
(d) Motor current
440
I  I a  I f  76   80 A
110
Total power delivered by source
Ps  VI  440  80 A  35.2 kW
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 (e) The generated power
Pg  EI a  462.62  60 A  27.76 kW
(f) The total losses
2
V
Wloss  Ra I a 
2
 rotational losses
Rf

2
440
 0.377  60 2
 1000  4.12 kW
110
(g) The power delivered to the source
= power generated – total losses
45 = 27.76 – 4.12 = 23.64 kW
 Example 2
A 220-V dc shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.062 ohms and with full
field has an emf of 215 V at a speed of
960 rpm. The motor is driving an
overhauling load with a torque of 172
Nm. Calculate the minimum speed at
which the motor can hold the load by
means of regenerative braking.
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 Solution
E 215
(i) Obtain the field constant k  
 2  960 60
(ii) Obtain the current required to develop a torque Te of 172 Nm:
Te 172  2  960
Ia     80.42 A
k 215  60
(iii) Obtain the emf during the regenerative braking and use it to
determine the speed.
V  E  I a Ra
220  E  80.42  0.062
E  220  80.42  0.062  225 V
(iv) Since for dc shunt motor emf is proportional to speed when
the field current is kept constant, we have
225
Speed   960  1004.65 rpm
215
Alternatively, we can use k to find the speed in rad/s
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 Example 3
A dc separately excited motor has an armature
resistance of 0.5 Ω and k  3 V/rad/s . The motor is
driven by 1-phase fully controlled ac-dc bridge
converter. The input to the converter is an ac source of
277 V. The motor is used to drive a forklift which is a
unidirectional torque load. In the upward direction, the
mechanical load is 100 Nm, and the triggering angle is
20o. In the downward direction, the load torque is 200
Nm. Calculate the triggering angle required to keep the
downward speed equal in magnitude to the upward
speed. Assume that the motor current is always
continuous.
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 Solution
The applied voltage when motoring is
2 2V
Vo  cos 

2 2  277
 cos 20  234.35 V
o


The motoring speed
Vo Ra
m   T
k (k ) 2 e

234.35 0.5
  2 100  72.56 rad/s
3 (3)
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 Solution
The braking speed is b  72.56 rad/s . Therefore
Vo 0.5
 72.56    200
3 (3) 2

0.5
Vo   200  3  72.56  184.35 V
3
2 2  277
Vo  cos  b  184.35

 184.35
cos  b   0.7395
0.9  277
 b  137.7 o
The converter operates in the inverter mode, converting the dc
power from the machine operating as a generator into ac which
50 is delivered to the electrical source.
 Example 4
For the motor in Example 3, the operator during the upward
motion changes the triggering angle to keep the motor at holding
position. Calculate the triggering angle.

Solution
At the holding position motor speed is zero and motor torque is
equal to load torque. Therefore
Vo Ra Vo 0.5
0  TL    100
k (k ) 2 3 (3) 2

0 .5 50
Vo   100   16.6667
3 3
16.6667
cos  b   0.06683
0.9003  277
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 b  86.2 o
 Example 5
A dc separately excited motor has an armature
resistance of 0.5 Ω and a field constant,
k  3 V/rad/s . The dc source voltage of the circuit
is 200 V. The motor is driving a forklift whose torque
is 180 Nm. A regenerative braking is applied by
switching the terminal voltage of the motor to a 30 V
reversed-polarity dc supply. Calculate the new
steady-state speed and the armature current at the
new speed.

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 Solution
The characteristics are as shown below:

Since the load torque is unidirectional, the new operating point is in the
fourth quadrant at point 5.
V Ra  30 0.5
5   TL    180  20 rad/s , N 5  190.98 rev/m
k (k ) 2 3 9
V  k5  30  3  (20)
The current at point 5 is I 5    60 A
Ra 0.5
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Rheostatic or dynamic braking of dc shunt
motor or separately excited motor
• Motor terminals are connected to external resistor Rex and the
field winding separately excited as shown on the next slide

• Under steady state conditions, the load torque which is

negative because it is aiding motion must be opposed by
motor torque, i.e. motor torque must also be negative.

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Rheostatic or dynamic braking of dc shunt
motor or separately excited motor

• When shunt excitation is used self-excitation becomes

ineffective at about 50 % of the rated speed. Thus no braking
torque is developed.

• With this method of braking, operating speeds lower than

ideal no load speed can be achieved.

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• The speed-torque equation can be obtained from the basic
equations and armature voltage equation:

Te E
Ia  , 
k k
E  V  I a Ra
  I a Rex  I a Ra   I a ( Rex  Ra )
 I a ( Rex  Ra ) ( Rex  Ra )
  Te
k (k ) 2
( Rex  Ra )
 Te
(k ) 2
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• Figure on the next slide shows the speed-torque
characteristics for bidirectional and unidirectional torque
loads.

• With this braking complete stoppage of the downward

moving load is not possible because E will be zero and so will
Ia.
• In other words zero speed can only occur at zero torque.

• Braking torques can be obtained at very low speeds: 0.07 to

0.1 of the rated speed.
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• Consider the case where a motor is lifting a unidirectional
torque load at a constant speed and suddenly dynamic braking
is applied.

• Let A in the figure on the next slide be the operating point

under normal motor operation.

• Then just after braking, the motor operating point moves to B,

then to the origin and finally to C where steady state condition
is met.

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• The motor stops momentarily at the origin. If the load is
disconnected or a mechanical brake is applied at the origin the
motor stops.

• Otherwise, the motor speed reverses.

• At the steady state operating point C, the motor operates as a

generator supplying electric power to the electrical load
resistance Rex.

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 Thank You

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