Engineering Surveying

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Chapter One
Topographic Surveying

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1.1. Introduction
• Topographic surveying is the process of determining the positions, on
the earth's surface, of the natural and artificial features of a given
locality, and of determining the configuration of the terrain.
• The location of the features is known as planimetry and the
configuration of the terrain is known as topography.
• The purpose of the survey is to gather data necessary for the
preparation of the topographic map that displays both the planimetric
and topographic features.

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 Cont…
The topographic map shows (by means of suitable symbols):
1. The spatial configuration of the earth's surface, which includes such
features as hills and valleys; other natural features such as trees,
streams, oceans, seas, etc. and
2. Man-made features such as buildings, roads, canals, cultivation,
etc.

The principal data required for topographic mapping are elevation and
distance.

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Use of Topographic Maps

1. They are necessary aids in the design of any engineering project

that requires consideration of landforms, elevations, or
gradients.
2. They furnish necessary data for economists, geologists, and
others interested in the general development of natural
resources.

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Representation of Topography
• Topography may be represented on a map by relief models, shading
color gradients, hachures, form lines, or contour lines.
• Of these representation techniques, only contour lines indicate
elevations directly and quantitatively.

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 1.2 Plane table surveys

• The plane table and alidade combination can be used for various
surveying operations such as traversing, leveling and compilation
of topographic maps.
• The combination consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod
in such a manner that the board can be leveled and rotated in
azimuth without disturbing the tripod.

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1.2.1 Plane-table Traverse

• Horizontal control for compiling maps can be established by plane

table traversing rather than by a more precise theodolite tape
traverse.

• If high quality, durable drawing sheet is used, and if the plane table
operator exercises care in taking stadia readings and in plotting the
points, a highly satisfactory traversing can be accomplished by
using the plane table.

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 1.3 Contour and Contour Lines
• A contour is an imaginary level line that connects points of equal
elevation.
• It may be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the
surface of the ground.
• Thus, every point on a contour line has the same elevation as that of the
intersecting surface.
• The configuration of the ground and the elevations of points are most
commonly represented by means of contour lines.
•The contour interval of a map is the vertical distance between contour
lines.
• The interval is determined by the purpose of the map and by the terrain
being mapped (hilly or level).
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1.3.1 Characteristics of contour Lines

The principal characteristics of contour lines are:

1. Horizontal distance between contours is inversely proportional to
the ground slope.
2. On uniform slopes the contour lines are spaced uniformly.
3. Along plane surfaces such as embankments, the contour lines are
straight and parallel.
4. As contour line represent level surfaces, they are perpendicular to
lines of the steepest slope. Thus, they are perpendicular to ridge
and valley lines where they cross such features.
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 Cont…
5. Contour lines do not simply end. They must close on themselves.
Therefore, a closed contour line on a map always indicates either
a summit or a depression.
6. Contour cannot merge or cross one another except in the case of
vertical surfaces (e.g. retaining wall) or overhanging ground (e.g.
a cave).
7. A single control line cannot lie between two contours of higher or
lower elevation.
8. When a contour line crosses gully/stream/ ravine on other
drainage structures, it forms a modified V pointing upstream. For
ridges, the V points downstream. The forms of the V's depend on
the type of bed material. For clay bed the V is smooth and
rounded; for coarse, granular bed, it is sharp.

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1.3.2 Scale and Contour Interval

• The scale of a map is the ratio of distance on the map to the

corresponding distance on the ground.
• It can be stated as a ratio (e.g. 1cm= 100m) or a representative
fraction (e.g. 1:10000).

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 Cont…
The following factors are to be considered while selecting scale for
a map
•Purpose of the map (the desired accuracy)
•The cost of the work
•Clarity/legibility
•Correlation of map data with related maps
•Desired size of the map sheet
•Physical factors to be show on the map

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 Cont…
Factors to be considered while selecting a contour interval for a map
are:
 Desired accuracy of elevations read from the map
 Characteristic features of the terrain-coarse or fine textures
 Legibility/ clarity of the map
 Cost of the work

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 Cont…
In general the following scales and contour intervals are
recommended.
 Large scale 1:100 to 1: 2,000
 Contour interval 0.1 to 2m
 Intermediate scale 1:2,000 to 1:10,000
 Contour interval 0.2 to 5m
 Small scale 1:10,000 to 1: 1,000,000
 Contour interval 5 to 2,000m

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1.4 Field Methods for compilation of topographic maps

• Factors that influence the selection of field methods to be used in

the compilation of topographic maps are the scale of the map, the
contour interval, the type of terrain, the nature of the project, the
equipment available, the required accuracy, the type of existing
control and the extent of the area to be mapped.
• There are four field methods for compiling topographic maps.
Examples under which each method is suitable are given below.

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1.Direct method of contouring:

i. For study of drainage, irrigation or water impounding structures,

each contour has to be carefully located in its correct horizontal
position on the map by following it along the ground.
• This is the Method of radial lines (trace contour method.)

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Cont…

• In this method, various points are located on each contour by using a level or hand
level and these are surveyed and fixed up on the plan.
• This method is very slow and tedious as a lot of time is wasted in searching points on
the same contour.
• But this is the most accurate method and is suitable for small areas where great
accuracy is required.

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i. Method of radial lines

• The method of radial lines can be very conveniently adopted when the
area to be surveyed is not very large and when all the points may be
commanded by the same position of the instrument.

• A point is selected some where at the center of the area to be

surveyed and various radial lines are laid out from this point.

• The relative positions of these lines are fixed up by the measurement

of horizontal angles or by bearings.

• Contour points are located along these radial lines by pegs and their
positions may be determined by measuring their distances from the
center. 18
2. Indirect type of contouring:
i. For highway/railway/ canal construction, a strip (30 to 300m wide)
needs to be mapped.
• Control lines are the sides of a traverse which has been established by a
previous survey and which has been stationed and profiled.
• Vertical control is provided by profile leveling along the centerline.
• The method of locating the topography most commonly used is the
cross section method.

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 Cont…
II. For an area of limited extent with many constant slopes, the grid
method is employed. Points forming grids are located on the
ground and their elevations are determined.
III. For an extensive area mapping, the contour lines are located by
determining the elevations of well chosen points from which the
position of points on the contours are determined by interpolation.
This is the controlling point method.

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 Cont…

• This metod is known as contouring by spot levels or heights and is less

laborious, cheaper and is quicker than the direct method.
• Spot level or spot height may be defined as the reduced level of a point on
the ground.

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i. Cross-section Method

• In the cross section method, cross section lines are established along the
center line at intervals of 100-m or ft (full station), 50-m or ft (half station),
30-m or ft, 20-m or 10-m and additionally at all points where prominent
features occur (e.g. change in direction of the center line or slope).

• The cross section method can be carried out by any one of transit and
tapes, transit stadia level and tape, hand level and tape, plane table and
tape or plane table stadia.

• Horizontal control is established by a theodolite tape traverse; vertical

control by profile leveling.
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ii. Grid Method
• The grid method may be used for mapping of areas of limited extent
with a fairly regular topography.
• A level is usually used for determining the elevations of the grid points.
The following steps are used in running the grid method:
1. Establish the boundary of the area to be surveyed by running a
traverse around the area. Establish control points at the corners.
2. Divide the area into uniform rectangles or squares. The size of the
divisions will be such that, for the most part, the ground slopes can be
considered uniform between the grid points at the corners of the
divisions.
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 Cont…
• The point of intersection of the grid lines is defined by a letter and a
figure of the respective intersecting grid lines.
• Levels are taken at all points and at all intermediate points where
the slopes change abruptly.
• After the fieldwork is completed, the control points, the boundary
and the grid are plotted to the desired scale.
• The elevations of the grid points are then written at the
corresponding map positions of the intersections.
• The positions of the desired contour lines are located by
interpolation between the grid intersections.
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Exercise: The elevations of grid points for an area as follows:

The elevations are in m. The readings are taken at 15-m intervals. Plot a 5-m interval
contour lines for the area. Use a scale of 1: 200. On your map locate the intermediate
point B+3.5m, 3+2m with a spot elevation of 720m.

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iii. Controlling- point Method:

• The compilation of a topographic map by determining the positions

and elevations of carefully selected controlling points is applicable to
nearly every condition economy realized.
• It can be used for mapping of a strip of land for route location
studies.

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3.5 Map Finishing:

• In addition to contours, the positions of other natural features (e.g.

trees, streams, lakes, etc.) and man made features (e.g. buildings,
dams, roads, etc.) should appear on topographic maps. For this,
their positions are observed in the field.
• Symbols are used to represent these features on the map. Most of
the symbols used for object representation on a map are
conventional.
• Where feasible colored symbols are used.

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The following list gives various colors and objects they represent.

 Black- for man made or cultural features: roads, buildings, names and
boundaries.
 Blue-for hydrographic features: lakes, seas, oceans, rivers, canals, glaciers,
etc.
 Brown-for relief configuration of ground in terms of contour lines,
hachures, etc.
 Green-for wooded or vegetative covers, with typical patterns to show such
features as scrub, vineyards or orchards.
 Red- to emphasize important roads and public and division lines, and
shows built-up areas. Nature and source of data used in the mapping ought
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to be known.
Other information to be shown on the finished map includes:

1. The direction of the meridian and the basis for directions (grid, magnetic, true
meridian).
2. A graphical scale of the map
3. A legend or key to symbols
4. An appropriate title.
5. A statement of the contour interval.
6. A statement giving the datum to which horizontal and vertical control are
referenced.
7. A statement giving the mapping projection.
8. A statement giving the co-ordinate systems for which grid lines are published on
the map.

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Thank You!!

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