Ethiopian Roads Authority

Road defects and maintenance

activities
 Road maintenance category
 Road defects
Road Cross Section Elements
Flexible pavement structure
Road surfacing
 Paved Road: a road with a
bituminous surfacing
 Unpaved Road: a road with a soil or
gravel surface
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Road Maintenance Categories

 Routine maintenance
 Recurrent maintenance
 Periodic maintenance
 Urgent maintenance
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Routine maintenance
 Usually related to environmental and climate
condition, not to the engineering and traffic
characteristics of the particular road
 Activities are such as Culvert Cleaning, Brush
Clearing, Repair Erosion Damage, etc
 Undertaken at least two times a year, before and
after rainy season
 Mostly labour intensive works
 Available on all types of roads
 Fixed cost of Road Agencies
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Recurrent maintenance
 Related to the engineering and traffic
characteristics of the particular road
 Activities are such as
 Paved roads: Asphalt patching, Crack Sealing, etc
 Unpaved roads: Spot Repair Gravel Road, Blade
gravel road (light & heavy), etc
 Machine and labour intensive works
 Undertaken on a regular basis upon defects
appear
 Variable cost of Road Agencies
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Periodic maintenance
 Related to the engineering and traffic
characteristics of the particular road
 Activities are such as
 Paved roads: Single or double bituminous surface
treatment, Asphaltic concrete overlay, etc
 Unpaved roads: Gravel resurfacing,
 Undertaken at interval of several years
 Machine intensive works
 Variable cost of Road Agencies
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Urgent maintenance
 Emergency works of this type are where there
is danger-to-life
 Emergency repair to blocks or impassable
roads
 Removal of traffic accidents, broken-down
vehicles, landslide or other debris on the
road
 Past experience will indicate the scale of the
resources that need to be set aside for these
activities
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Road Defects
 Carriageway defects
 Drainage defects
 Road side defects
 Road furniture and facilities
defects
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Carriageway defects
 Paved roads defects
 Rutting;
 Corrugations;
 Cracking: Longitudinal; Transverse;
 Alligator Cracking;
 Potholes;
 Stripping/Fretting/ Raveling;
 Edge break
 Bleeding;
 Depression/Deformation;
 Lane marking.
 Low shoulder
RUTTING WITH/WITHOUT CRACKS
 Description
More likely to occur in pavements
with thick bituminous layers.
Permanent depressions in the road
surface affecting the road cross-
section in the wheel paths. Generally
over long distances. In some
instances, ruts will be bordered by
excess material displaced by the ruts.
Rutting
 Rutting without cracks due to heavy trucks with
twin-wheels
Rutting
 Wheel-track rutting and cracking
 PROBABLE CAUSES OF THE DAMAGE:

 Accumulation of irreversible deformation

and/or lateral material displacement
within the pavement layers
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DAMAGE:

 Traffic: Influence of axle load and traffic intensity is

important. Low speeds are the most damaging.
 Climate: High temperatures increase the risks of
deformation in the bituminous layers, During rainy season
increased moisture content in soil and foundation layers
enhance the risk
 Materials: High risks with clayey soils, contaminated base
courses or base courses containing too much fines
 Bituminous materials: Wrong mix design; too much/too
little bitumen; poor interlock between aggregates;
incorrect bitumen type; poor compaction
REMARKS
 Damage will reduce lateral movement
of vehicles thus increasing the
development of existing ruts
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Replace bituminous layers by
materials of better composition.
 Improve foundation by improving
drainage; seal cracks.
 Improve foundation, reinforce
pavement structure.
CORRUGATIONS
 DESCRIPTION
Shallow and evenly spaced ridges of
surface material, perpendicular to the
longitudinal road axis. Spacing of the
ridges is often about 1 m; this type of
damage is often localized
CORRUGATIONS
 Transverse undulations
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE

Corrugation occurs if one or more pavement layers start

to flow, thus permitting movement of materials into the
corrugated surface
 Traffic: Tangential forces from wheels are the main
cause of this type of damage, particularly where vehicles
frequently stop or accelerate
 Climate: High temperature increases the risk of such
damage
 Wearing course design: Lack of adhesion between
base and wearing course
 Materials: Lack of stiffness in one of the layers due to
improper construction, execution or design
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Replace corrugated layers; choose
mixtures with a better composition and
quality
DEPRESSION/DEFORMATION/
SUBSIDENCE
 DESCRIPTION
Vertical settlement of the road
surface, usually localized and circular
in shape. Often the surface material is
cracked
Settlement of lower layers and local
loss of bearing capacity due to
excessive moisture content within the
pavement
DEPRESSION/DEFORMATION/
SUBSIDENCE
 Depressions near the edge of the carriageway
PROBABLE CAUSES:

Settlement of lower layers and local loss of

bearing capacity due to excessive moisture
content within the pavement
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DAMAGE:

 Traffic: Heavy traffic is a major factor and

worsens this damage rapidly
 Drainage:
 Bad surface drainage: due to localized low spots, run-
off of surface water is not adequate. The water then
penetrates into the foundation layers.
 Bad lateral drainage: Water is ponding in side drains,
raising the water table in the subgrade.
 Materials: Clayey soils and clay contaminated
sub base and base course materials
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY:
 Maintain drains. Remove the material in
the affected area; replace by new base
or sub base material and compact
properly; reinstate the surface course
LONGITUDINAL OR
TRANSVERSAL CRACKS
 Longitudinal or transversal Cracks due to
shrinking of base
LONGITUDINAL OR TRANSVERSAL
CRACKS
 DESCRIPTION:
Longitudinal cracks are cracks or
breaks parallel to the road axis
(central or edge).
Transversal cracks are breaks over
the full width of the road
PROBABLE CAUSES

 Longitudinal cracks
 Pavement fatigue; problems due to design;
 Opening of a longitudinal joint in the wearing course
(construction fault);
 Reflection cracks where pavement has been
widened; (uneven settlement of foundation or
movement of longitudinal joints).
 Transversal cracks
 Inadequate joint construction.
 Lack of compaction of a road section.
 Reflection cracking from foundation layers.
 Structural discontinuity of pavement structure
PROBABLE CAUSES

 Longitudinal cracks
 Pavement fatigue; problems due to design;
 Opening of a longitudinal joint in the wearing course
(construction fault);
 Reflection cracks where pavement has been
widened; (uneven settlement of foundation or
movement of longitudinal joints).
 Transversal cracks
 Inadequate joint construction.
 Lack of compaction of a road section.
 Reflection cracking from foundation layers.
 Structural discontinuity of pavement structure
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DAMAGE

 Traffic: The influence of traffic will be important

when the damage is concentrated in the wheel
tracks
 Climate:
 During rainy season, water penetrates through the
cracks to the under laying layers, thus weakening the
sub-soil and leading to failure.
 Due to temperature variations, movement of the
pavement layers will cause stresses at joints and in the
foundation layers which will result in reflection cracking
 Materials: Wearing course too fragile; bad mix
design; low bearing capacity of foundation layers
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Seal cracks.
 Cut away wearing course and apply a
new layer
ALLIGATOR/CROCODILE
CRACKS/CRAZING
 Interconnected cracking
ALLIGATOR/CROCODILE
CRACKS/CRAZING
 DESCRIPTION:
Network of cracks in all directions,
linked together; localized in the wheel
tracks or over the full width of the
road
PROBABLE CAUSES

 Design:
 Inadequate for traffic load; insufficient
thickness of surface layers.
 Pavement is at the end of its life; low
bearing capacity of soil
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE DAMAGE:
 Traffic: The damage appears in the first instance in the
wheel tracks where the effects of traffic are greatest. If
the base and subbase course are weak, this damage will
be accompanied by deformation
 Climate: During the rainy season, weakening of sub-soil
due to water infiltration. When the drainage is
insufficient the damage will occur in the first instance in
the outer wheel path of the road.
 Materials:
 Top layer: Too stiff relative to its thickness. Premature ageing of
material.
 Lower layers: Contaminated by clayey soils; clay or laterite soils.
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Superficial treatment, sealing;
 Cut away and construct a new layer
POTHOLES
 Holes in wheel-tracks
POTHOLES
 DESCRIPTION
In general round holes caused by the
loss of material in the top layer
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Traffic: Holes develop in those places where the subgrade
is deformed or as a result of other damage (alligator
cracking, settlements, etc.); increased traffic will
accelerate the development of holes.
 Climate: Holes start to develop in the wet season; water
remains in the depressions and soaks the foundation
making it vulnerable to traffic.
 Materials: Wearing course material fragile or premature
ageing of binder; clayey soils or contaminated foundations
prevent proper drainage and encourage the development
of holes.
 Others: This type of damage often results from neglected
maintenance (surface treatment of road with alligator
cracking).
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Preventive maintenance of cracks
(sealing);
 Cut away bad material to obtain a
patch with straightedges; fill with
bituminous material and compact;
 Cut away wearing course and apply a
new bituminous layer. Deep holes
endangering traffic must be repaired
immediately
STRIPPING/FRETTING/RAVELLING
OF SURFACE
 Progressive loss of aggregate from the road
surface
STRIPPING/FRETTING/RAVELLING OF
SURFACE

 DESCRIPTION:
 Loss of areas of the surfacing
 Removal of aggregates in longitudinal
strips.
 Pavement binder appears alternatively in
thin and thick lines on the surface,
parallel to road axis.
 Removal of aggregates of a large surface
area
PROBABLE CAUSES
 During laying: only surface dressings are
concerned
 Bad spreading of binder (blocked, badly
adjusted or aimed nozzles).
 Bad adjustment in height of the spreading
bar;
 Bad binder/aggregate bond;
 Bad aggregate gradation of the surface mix;
 Bad spreading of aggregates.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE DAMAGE:
 Climate: In the case of insufficient
adhesion, infiltrating water (through cracks
or porous surface layer) will accumulate
between the pavement layers and weaken
the pavement structure.
 Materials: Insufficient thickness or
stability of wearing course; lack of bond
with lower layer
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Localized repairs; surface treatment
or sealing;
 Cut away wearing course and
reconstruct.
 Renew treatment with better control
of laying operation
BLEEDING
 Bleeding In wheel-tracks
BLEEDING
 DESCRIPTION:
Localized accumulation of bitumen at
road surface, making the road appear
black and shiny.
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE:

 Climate: High temperature softens the binder

and makes it more susceptible to damage
(binder too soft or too susceptible to high
temperatures).
 Materials and construction execution
 Excess bitumen in surface course; damage
will occur generally in wheel paths
 Upward movement of bitumen from
underlying tack coat or previous surface
layer
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Spread chippings or sand on the
affected area
 Remove the affected layer and
replace
 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Carriageway defects
 Unpaved roads defects
 Rutting;
 Corrugations;
 Camber/cross fall;
 Gravel thickness;
 Erosion gullies;
 Potholes;
 Loose gravel;
 Stoniness/Coarse texture
RUTTING
 Rutting in both lanes
RUTTING
 DESCRIPTION:
Permanent longitudinal deformations
following the line of vehicle wheel
paths. In extreme cases the cross-
section of the road shows a w-profile
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Traffic: Resulting from wheel forces. Strongly influenced by
traffic intensity, speed, loading or transverse distribution. The
development of ruts is accelerated by heavy traffic and
canalized traffic.
 Climate:
 Dry season: Lateral displacement of non-cohesive materials.
 Rainy season: Liquefactions of surface material or stability loss of road
embankment or supporting soils.
 Materials:
 Dry: Increased risk for non-cohesive materials (mainly sandy).
 Humid: Increased risk for clayey materials and materials susceptible to
water
 Others: The presence of ruts may cause other damage to
develop, such as longitudinal erosion gullies or potholes in
weak spots in the surfacing.
REMARKS:
 This damage has a bad effect on the
safety of road users. Ruts prevent
lateral movement of vehicles, which
accelerates rut development. In
extreme cases the depth of ruts is
such that the road becomes
impassable
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Dry grading or dragging;
 Wet grading or re-gravelling of
surface course;
 Heavy grading or rehabilitation of
road.
CORRUGATIONS
 Generalized corrugation
CORRUGATIONS
 DESCRIPTION:
Shallow and evenly spaced ridges of
surface material, transverse to road
axis. These ridges extend over the
entire width of the road; spacing
varies between 500 and 1 000 mm
depending on the average speed of
vehicles
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE:
 Traffic: Lack of cohesion in the surface material
and displacement by moving vehicles
 Climate: During the rainy season the ridge will
also develop in the sub-base. The loss of course
materials from the valleys will create weak spots
leading to other damage. The damage develops
during the dry season when the material has little
cohesion.
 Materials: Materials most susceptible show little
cohesion, a low plasticity index, contain particles
larger than 5 mm and relatively few fines
REMARKS
 This damage, one of the main sources
of driver discomfort, is extremely
harmful to vehicles. It is one of the
main causes of increased vehicle
operating costs
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE
ACTIVITY
 Dragging of surface;
 Grading of surface;
 Wet grading of surface
CAMBER/CROSSFALL
 Loss of a cross fall, water accumulating
CAMBER/CROSSFALL
 DESCRIPTION:
Distortion and deformation of the
road cross-section. The ideal profile
that should be maintained has a
"roof" shape with transverse slopes of
3-4 % to permit the rapid flow of
surface water off the road
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS
AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DAMAGE

 Wear by traffic;
 Differential settlement;
 Movement of materials
REMARKS
 Defects in cross section reduce the
removal of surface water thus
weakening the road construction. The
formation of potholes and rutting will
be accelerated
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Continue the recurrent maintenance;
 Dry grading; shorten the interval of
operations;
 Wet grading or re-gravelling of
surface course;
GRAVEL THICKNESS
 Thickness between 15 and 20cm
GRAVEL THICKNESS
 DESCRIPTION:
 Thickness reduction of surface course.
 Loss of surface material due to various
causes including re-grading and re-
gravelling operations.
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Traffic: It is one of the main causes of loss of material.
An ADT of about 140 vehicles leads to a loss of material
of 10 to 30 mm per annum.
 Climate: Losses occur during all seasons, however rain
will increase the loss of material. In the dry season this
damage will also result in dust generated by traffic.
 Materials: Strongly dependent on type of material used
for construction.
 Others: Combined action of all factors including
maintenance, affects the pavement (or surface course).
Development of damage depends on region, climate,
materials used for road construction, traffic intensity,
and topography.
REMARKS
 Road users safety is endangered by
dust generated by traffic; dust
reduces the visibility and is also a
nuisance for people living adjacent to
the road.
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Re-gravelling of surface course or wet
grading;
 Reconstruction of surface course
EROSION GULLIES
 Longitudinal erosion gullies
EROSION GULLIES
 DESCRIPTION: The aspect is dependent
upon the mode of development and the
location. Three main types are
distinguished:
 Scouring of side drains, following the slope
of the formation level and affecting a section
with steep slopes and bad compaction.
 Longitudinal gulleys parallel to the road
axis in the surface.
 Gulleys transverse to the road axis cutting
the road over its entire width
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS
AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DAMAGE
 Traffic: Traffic may create damage leading to
erosion. Ruts develop into longitudinal gullies;
corrugations may create perpendicular gullies.
 Climate: The severity of the erosion depends
on the quantity and the velocity of the surface
water to be removed.
 Materials: Badly compacted materials and
materials likely to be affected by water.
REMARKS
 Erosion develops quickly and can lead
to total severance of the road. Deep
gullies endanger the safety of road
users
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Monitor drainage and cross-section of the
road.
 If prominent, grading or any other
maintenance technique considered
suitable for the damage leading to erosion
gullies.
 Extensive damage: re-gravelling or
reconstruction of the road; if damage is
localized fill galley and restore road
profile
POTHOLES
 Pothole on wet roadway
POTHOLES
 DESCRIPTION:
In general bowl shaped holes caused
by the loss of surface material
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS
AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
DAMAGE
 Traffic: Potholes develop in those areas where the
subgrade is uneven or results from other damage
(corrugations, rutting, erosion, gullies, etc.).
Increased traffic will accelerate the development of
potholes.
 Climate: Potholes start to develop in the wet
season; water remains in them and soak the surface
material, making it vulnerable to further damage.
Once present, potholes will grow deeper and wider.
 Materials: Impermeable clayey soils prevent
proper drainage of surface water and permit weak
spots to develop into potholes.
REMARKS
 Once potholes are present, they are
to be repaired immediately since they
worsen quickly. Potholes have an
adverse effect on the safety and
comfort of the road user
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Fill potholes.
 Grading
 Wet grading or re-gravelling of
surface
LOOSE GRAVEL
 Loose gravel forming windrows in the center
and along the shoulder
LOOSE GRAVEL
 DESCRIPTION:
Unbound coarse gravel material on
the road surface. Loose gravel may
be distributed over the full width of
the road but most frequently is
concentrated away from the normal
road wheel path and forms windrows
in the center or along the shoulder
(the less traveled area)
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE

 This type of distress can be caused by

wear and tear action of traffic on
unsurfaced roads, which will
eventually loosen the larger
aggregate particles from the soil
binder. This distress can also be
caused by raveling of weakly bound
materials due to lack of compaction
or poor composition.
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Blend fine material with the loose
gravel to increase cohesion, moisten,
spread and compact the material
DEFECTS OF ROAD SIDE ELEMENTS
 SHOULDER
 EDGE DISTRESS/LACY EDGE
 LOW SHOULDER
 VEGETATION
 SCOUR
 SIDE DRAINS
 SILTATION
 SCOUR
 CULVERT AND BRIDGE
 SILTED/BLOCKED
 SCOUR
 DAMAGE
DEFECTS OF ROAD SIDE ELEMENTS
 ROAD SIGNS & FURNITURE
 DIRTY
 DAMAGED
 MISSING
SHOULDER
EDGE DISTRESS - LACY EDGE
 Edge distress with shoulder deformation
EDGE DISTRESS - LACY EDGE
 DESCRIPTION:
Cracking and disintegration of the
edges of the bituminous pavement
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Traffic: Due to narrow road width, vehicles are
forced to use the edge of the road or the
shoulder; settlement of shoulder due to parking
of vehicles.
 Construction: Lack of support of shoulder;
shoulder unstable and too low.
 Materials: Lack of adhesion in the surfacing ;
lack of stiffness.
 Climate: Erosion will reduce shoulder level and
progressively affect the surfacing
REMARKS
 This type of damage tends to worsen
rapidly and may affect the safety of
traffic
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Repair areas affected;
 Reconstruct shoulder and edge of
pavement;
SHOULDER
EDGE DISTRESS -LOW SHOULDER
 Lowered shoulder due to erosion
EDGE DISTRESS -LOW SHOULDER
 DESCRIPTION:
The visual aspects may be
distinguished as the shoulder level is
lower than the road surface level.
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE:
 DAMAGE:
 Wear and deformation of shoulders caused
by traffic and parking on shoulders in
particular at soft spots and less compacted
areas
 Slope failure of side drain due to
erosion, water soaked embankment or
embankment erosion
 Unforeseen settlement of
embankment and subsequent damage of
side drain and shoulder
REMARKS
 Following are the consequences of
deformed shoulders:
 Ponding and infiltration of water on
shoulders beside the carriageway.
 Deformation of carriageway; edge
damage risks due to vehicle wheels.
 Dangerous for traffic.
 In all cases rutting and depressions
will be generated.
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Protect slopes (in cut) against erosion.
 Refill shoulders.
 Make or repair outlets for side drains.
 Stop surface drainage over fill slopes
and take protective measures against
erosion
SHOULDER - VEGETATION
 Vegetation growing on the shoulder and
covering the entrance of the Bridge
VEGETATION
 DESCRIPTION:
This is roadside vegetation growing
on the shoulder, in slopes, and
ditches. These are to be removed to
restore the sight distances and
improve the drainage system. The
standard to follow is: all brushes, tall
weeds, and trees should be cleared
6m from the edge of the shoulders
REMARKS
 Shrubs and trees are potent hazard to
traffic as well and undermining the
integrity of the road surface with their
root systems. They must be removed
before they are allowed to gain a
foothold in the shoulder
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Clearing the vegetation
SHOULDER - SCOUR
 Erosion of shoulder and embankment
SHOULDER - SCOUR
 DESCRIPTION: Two different types can
be distinguished:
 Gullies perpendicular to the road
axis cutting through the full width of the
shoulder
 Longitudinal gullies, parallel to the
road axis.
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Erosion due to run-off of surface water.
 The defect might be made worse by the flooding of
the shoulder due to flooding of the side drain.
 Main factors for the development of the defect are
the erosive action of rain; the corresponding
washing out of erodable soils; depends also on the
topographical conditions.
 The defect appears in particular on steep slopes, at
curves in badly compacted materials and in easily
erodable materials.
 Gullies will be aligned along the steepest slope of
the shoulder embankment
REMARKS
 Progressive scour deepens the gullies
and the shoulder becomes unusable.
This endangers the safety of the road
users
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Reshape and re-level the shoulder.
 In case of extensive erosion reshape
the shoulder by adding well-
compacted erosion resistant material
SIDE DRAINS - SILTATION
 Slope erosion resulting in ditch siltation
SIDE DRAINS - SILTATION
 DESCRIPTION:
Deposit of material in the side drains
of the road causing a partial or
completely blocked drainage system
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Presence of obstacles, resulting from:
 Side drain slope failure due to traffic action
or cattle movement; or to erosion; or to cut
slope failure;
 Encroaching vegetation and accumulation of
debris in drains.
 Bad drainage design:
 Too shallow longitudinal slope in the side
drain;
 Insufficient outlets to disperse the water.
REMARKS
 The consequences of the siltation are:
 Reduction of ditch cross-section and velocity of
water;
 Increasing siltation and amounts of debris resulting in
a complete obstruction of the ditch itself and the
outlets;
 Ponding of water in the ditch, water penetration in
base and sub-basecourse resulting in erosion;
 Reduction of bearing capacity of road shoulder.
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Cleaning up and reshaping of drains,
control vegetation growth;
 Cleaning up and repair of catchments
basins;
 Cleaning up and increasing number of
outlets;
 Eventual construction of interception
ditches to improve erosion from slopes
SIDE DRAINS - SCOUR
 Aggressive erosion of a side drain
SIDE DRAINS - SCOUR
 DESCRIPTION: Erosion of bottom and
sides of ditches:
 Direct erosion is occurring when soil
particles are loosened and transported
by water;
 Regressive erosion is occurring
when a relatively flat terrain is followed
(downstream) by a terrain with a steeper
slope or more erodable materials.
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE

 Use of non cohesive materials which

are not stabilized;
 Too steep longitudinal slope of drain;
 Drain too long (superior to critical
length) insufficient number of outlets;
 Irregular longitudinal profile of drain;
sudden change of slope; level of
outlet too low.
REMARKS
 Scour in the drain will result in the
collapse of the drain in the first instance;
rapidly the shoulder will follow and
ultimately the carriageway itself will be
endangered. Regressive erosion
provokes a number of successive
embankment collapses which endanger
the road user and furthermore leads to
major repair costs
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Reshape and realign ditch;
 Stabilize or protect bottom and side
slopes of ditch in sensitive areas;
 Reduce ditch length, construct more
outlets;
 Construct sedimentation dams
CULVERTS - SILTED/BLOCKED
 obstruction due to progressive siltation
CULVERTS - SILTED/BLOCKED
 DESCRIPTION:
This type of damage concerns the
partial or complete obstruction of
culverts by silt, natural debris or other
material
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 Design faults:
 Invert level too low;
 Longitudinal slope too flat,
 Culvert pipe diameter incorrect.
 During rainy seasons, soil/sand, small trees
and vegetation in ground is carried away by
the rain water and deposit in initial locations
(entrance of culvert pipe, badly designed
structures); this will lead to obstructions
and subsequently flooding and inundation.
REMARKS
 Lack of inspection and maintenance may
have the following consequences:
 Submersion of embankment resulting
in uncontrolled settlement of road shoulders;
 Ponding of water upstream of the
structure resulting in slope failure;
 Inundation of complete culvert,
shoulders and road
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Preventative maintenance in dry season;
 Cleaning of culverts especially entrance
and mid-section of culvert pipes;
 Construction of protective structures,
against silt and debris upstream of
culvert (mesh, deflecting devices, etc.);
 Correction of culvert design errors
CULVERTS - SCOUR
 Scour at the end of the culvert
CULVERTS - SCOUR
 DESCRIPTION: This type of damage
consists of the loss of materials from
both ends of the culvert; eventually the
whole structure might be undermined.
Two types of erosion can take place
downstream of the culvert depending on
the initial gradient:
 Localized erosion with gully development;
 Regressive erosion with ravine development
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE
 The severity of the localized erosion and
the damage caused by it depend upon
the conditions at the downstream end of
the culvert (flow, diameter, Froude
parameter).
 Regressive erosion with gorge
development depends upon the stability
of the free flow and the downstream
outlet conditions of the culvert
REMARKS
 The erosion will ultimately attack the
embankment slopes and causes
damage to the complete structure
such as head and wing walls and the
culvert itself.
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Design and implement protective
erosion control and energy dissipating
structures.
 Backfill of scoured areas with
boulders or gabions;
 Installation of gabion protection,
rock beds, etc.;
 Construction of concrete protection
structures.
CULVERTS - STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
 Total destruction of a pipe with collapse of the
road
CULVERTS - STRUCTURAL
DAMAGE
 DESCRIPTION: Two types of structural
damage can be distinguished:
 Slight settlement with subsequent
cracking in head walls, wing walls and the
culvert structure;
 Pronounced uneven settlement, with
the subsequent development of large
cracks.
PROBABLE CAUSES AND FACTORS AFFECTING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAMAGE

 Incorrect design;
 Diminished bearing capacity of
foundation layers, settlement of soils
under foundation;
 Erosive action around structure;
 Traffic may cause damage when
insufficient cover is present
REMARKS
 Lack of inspection and maintenance
may have the following
consequences:
 Minor damage: culvert is still
functional;
 Major damage: obstruction of culvert,
collapse of structure
POSSIBLE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY
 Repair cracks;
 Reconstruct inlet and outlet and other
missing parts;
 Reconstruct complete structure