4.

5 sampling techniques and Sample size

Ayele.t

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Sampling
 Contents

• Definition of sampling
• Why do we use samples?
• Concept of representativeness
• Sampling questions
• Main methods of sampling
 What is sampling?

• Sampling is the process of selecting a number

of study units from a defined study population

• Research conclusions and generalizations are

only as good as the sample they are based on
 Sampling techniques and
sampling size

• Necessary to understand: the principles

of the sampling and the size of the
sample adequate to obtain results
approximating the true parameters
 Sampling questions
( What we need to know)
We need to answer 3 questions:
• What is the population from which we
want to draw a sample? (study population)

• How will these members be selected?

(sampling methods)

• How many members do we need in our

sample? (sample size)
 Definition of sampling terms
Target Population (Universe):
• A group of people living in one geographical area

• The target population is the entire group a

researcher is interested in; the group about which
the researcher wishes to draw conclusions upon

• Samples are usually obtained from populations and

thus it is logic that samples should be
representative of the populations from which they
are derived
 Definition of sampling terms
• The study population
It is a collection of objects, events or individuals
having characteristics that a researcher may be
interested in studying.

• Example:
If your study is to explore and describe the
characteristics of
diabetic patients, then your population is diabetic
patients.

Each study population consists of Study units.

 Definition of sampling terms
The population unit (study unit):

• This is the individual person or thing or

whatever being counted

• Thus the population units could be health

facilities, schools, ANC attendants, T.B.
cases etc…
 Definition of sampling terms
Sampling unit
• Subject under observation on which information
is collected
– Example: Children <5 years, hospital discharges…
 Definition of sampling terms
Sampling frame:
• This is the source from which the study subjects are
selected

• List of all the sampling units in the population

– List of households, health care units…

Examples of sampling frames:

• Hospital admission lists

• Hospital outpatient lists
• The list of the workers in a factory
• List of students
 Definition of sampling terms

Sampling technique (scheme):

• Method of selecting sampling units from

sampling frame

– Randomly, convenience sample…

 Definition of sampling terms
The sample:

• Is the part of the population from which

information is actually obtained

• The help of a statistician is always needed but

the researcher should understand the basic
rules of sampling
 Why do we use samples ?

Get information from large populations

– At minimal cost
– At maximum speed
– At increased accuracy
– Using enhanced tools
 Representativeness

• A properly selected sample of appropriate size

will enable generalization to be made about
the population.
 Errors in statistical Study

A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes,

however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely
representative of the population.
No sample is the exact mirror image of the population .

Sampling or Random

Errors
Non-sampling or
systematic

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1. Sampling error/ random error

– the sample selected is not representative of the

population due to chance
– Sampling errors are the random variations in the
sample estimates around the true population
parameters.

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Sampling error cont’d…

the level of it is controlled by sample size

a larger sample size leads to a smaller sampling error.

When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0

 Can not be avoided or totally eliminated

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 The cause of sampling error

Chance (random error) : bad luck.

exists no matter how carefully selection procedures is.
Sampling bias: Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the
selection of participants that have particular characteristics.

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 2. Non Sampling Error

It is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct of

a sampling procedure

We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias)

by careful design of the sampling procedure and not by
increasing the sample size.

It can occur whether the total study population or a sample

is being used.

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Non-sampling Error……

oThe basic types of non-sampling

error
Non-response error
Response or data error

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Non-sampling Error……

oA non-response error occurs when units selected as part of the sampling procedure do not

respond in whole or in part

If non-respondents are not different from those that did respond, there is no non-

response error

When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of the sample (about 15% or

more

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Non-sampling Error…….

oA response or data error is any systematic bias that

occurs during data collection, analysis or interpretation

Respondent error (e.g., lying, forgetting, etc.)

Interviewer bias

Recording errors

Poorly designed questionnaires

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 Sample size criteria

Sample size depends on:

• Objective of the study

• Population size
• The level of precision
• The level of confidence
• The degree of variability in the data measured
 Level of percision
• Level of precision: sampling error

• The range in which the true population value is estimated

to be

• No sample is the exact mirror image of the population

• Magnitude of error can be measured in probability

samples

• Expressed by standard error

– of mean, proportion, differences, etc
 The level of precision

• If a researcher found that 60% of the health care

providers in the sample have adopted the new
protocol for T.B. case management

• This is often expressed in percentage point + or

- 5%

• Thus the researcher can conclude that between 55%

and 65% of the HCPs adopted the new protocol for TB
case management
 The level of confidence
• In a normal distribution, approximately 95% of the sample
values are within two standard deviations of the true
population value (e.g.: mean)

• Furthermore, the values obtained by these samples are

distributed normally about the true value, with some
samples having a higher value and some obtaining a lower
score than the true population value

• If a 95% confidence level is selected, 95 out of 100 samples will

have the true population value within the range of precision
specified earlier
Figure
1.
 Degree of variability
• The more heterogeneous the population, the larger
the sample size required

• The more homogeneous the population, the smaller

sample size

• A proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of

variability than 20% or 80%

• This is because 20% and 80% indicate a large

majority do not or do have the attribute of interest i.e.
disease
 Strategies for determining the sample
size

There are several approaches for determining

the sample size:

• Census for small populations

• Imitating a sample size of similar studies
• Using published tables
• Using formulas for calculation of sample
size
• Computerized statistical package
Steps in estimating sample size
• Identify major study variable
• Proportion/p
• Decide on desired precision of the estimate/d
• Level of significance
• Adjust for estimated design effect
• Adjust for expected response rate
Factors to determine sample size

Size of population
Resources – subjects, financial, manpower
Method of Sampling- random, stratified
Degree of difference to be detected
Variability (S.D.) – pilot study, historical
Degree of Accuracy (or errors)
- Type I error (alpha) p<0.05
- Type II error (beta) less than 0.2 (20%)
- Power of the test : more than 0.8 (80%)
Statistical Formulae

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 Sample size formulas

Simple random/systematic sampling

Cluster sampling
n = sample size
z = the normal standard deviate (z = 1.96)
p = the frequency of occurrence of an event
q = 1-p (the frequency of non occurrence of an event)
d = degree of precision (0.04%)
• A researcher is intending to conduct a survey to
determine the prevalence of
Ankylostomiasis/hook worm among school
children in Umbadda Province.

• From previous surveys conducted in the same

province the prevalence rate of Ankylostomiasis
was found to be 100/1000 (10%). How will the
researcher calculate the estimated the sample
size?
• Z = 1.96

• p = The frequency of occurrence of

Ankylostomiasis. From the previous surveys:
10% of the school children. In other words the
probability of having Ankylostomiasis is 0.1

• q = 1-0.1=0.9: the probability of not having

Ankylostomiasis among school children in
Umbadda Province is 0.9
• A researcher is intending to conduct a survey to
determine the prevalence of Diabetes among
adults in Omdurman Province.

• From previous surveys conducted in the same

province the prevalence rate of Diabetes was
found to be 20%. How will the researcher
calculate the estimated the sample size?
Thus Applying the above sample

𝑧2 𝑝
𝑛
𝑞 2
= 𝑑

1.96 𝑥 1.96 𝑥 0.2 𝑥 0.8

𝑛 =
• In case the researcher could not trace the prevalence of
Ankylostomiasis from previous studies and this is commonly
encountered in reality, the only option remains is to assume
that the expected prevalence is 50%

• z = 1.96

• p = the frequency of occurrence of Ankylostomiasis

(assumed
to be : 50% of the school children

• In other words the probability of having Ankylostomiasis is

0.5

• q = 1-0.5=0.5: the probability of not having Ankylostomiasis

among school children in Umbadda province is 0.5
Sample size equation for reduction of
sample
 Types of samples

• Non-probability samples (no sampling frame)

• Probability samples (sampling frame)

 Non-probability samples
• The technique does not employ random
procedures and the selection of the sample
unit is not carried by chance.

• Such samples are not representative of the

parent population
 Non probability samples
• Quota sample
• Sample reflects population structure
• population divided into categories, a quota is to
be selected from each category
• Time/resources constraints

• Convenience samples (purposive units)

• Involve in the study those samples accessible at time
of data collection
• Biased results are high in this type
• Samples not representative of the population

Probability of being chosen : unknown

Samples do not involve any mathematical
 Non probability Sample

• Purposive sample:
• Researcher involves specific units in the sample
Which it is believed to affect variables in a
study

• Volunteer sample:
• Some surveys involve tests (volunteers), therefore
those included in the study are those who accept
to take the test
Methods used in probability samples

• Simple random sampling

• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Multistage sampling
• Cluster sampling
 Probability samples

• The technique used employs random

procedures whereby the selection of the
sampling unit or element (individuals, objects,
villages) is done on the basis of chance..
• Reduces possibility of selection bias
• Allows application of statistical theory to
results
 1. Simple random sampling

• Principle
• Equal chance of drawing each unit

• Each individual is chosen randomly and

entirely by chance, such that each individual
has the same probability of being chosen at
any stage during the sampling process
• Procedure
• Number all units
• Randomly draw units
 Simple random sampling

• Advantages
• Simple
• Sampli
ng
error
easily
measu
red

• Disadvanta
ges
 Simple random sampling
Example: evaluate the prevalence of tooth decay
among the 1200 children attending a school

• List of children attending the school

• Children numerated from 1 to 1200
• Sample size = 100 children
• Random sampling of 100 numbers between 1
and 1200

How to randomly select?

 Simple random sampling

 These are lottery method,

 computer generated random number.

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Simple random sampling
 2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE

This is defined as the process in which the

selection is done systematically according
to a list of the targeted population
FIRST: determine the sampling interval, which is
symbolized by “k,” (it is the population size divided by
the desired sample size)

SECOND: randomly select a number between 1 and k,

and include that person in your sample

THIRD: also include each k element in your sample, for

example if k is 10 and your randomly selected number
between 1 and 10 was 5, then you will select persons 5,
15, 25, 35, 45, etc. when you get to the end of your
sampling frame you will have all the people to be
included in your sample
 Systematic sampling
• N = 1200, and n = 60
 sampling interval = 1200/60 = 20
• List persons from 1 to 1200
• Randomly select a number between 1 and
20 (ex : 8)
 1st person selected = the 8th on the
list
 2nd person = 8 + 20 = the
28th etc .....
Systematic sampling
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 ……..
Systematic sampling
 3. STRATIFIED SAMPLE

• In this type of sampling, the population is subdivided

into strata

• Thus for the sample to be representative, it should be

drawn from each stratum separately

• If the sample is drawn from the population without

considering the stratification, then the whole sample
may be drawn from one stratum rather than all strata
• First, stratify your sampling frame (e.g., divide it
into the males and the females if you are using
gender as your stratification variable).

• Second, take a random sample from each

group

• There are actually two different types of

stratified sampling
 Stratified sampling
• Principle:

• Particularly useful when one is

interested in analyzing data by certain
characteristic

• Classify population into internally

homogeneous subgroups (strata) e.g:
age group: 0-10, 11-20, 21-30

• Draw sample in each strata

• Combine results of all strata

 Stratified sampling
• Advantages
• All subgroups represented, allowing separate
conclusions about each of them

• Disadvantages
• Loss of precision if very small numbers
sampled in individual strata
 4. MULTI-STAGE SAMPLE

• This is sample in which the parent population

is divided into large units, from which a first
stage sample is drawn randomly

• Then a second stage sample is drawn from

those sample units selected in the first stage
 Multiple stage sampling
Principle
• consecutive samplings
• example:
sampling unit = household

• 1st stage : drawing areas or

blocks
• 2nd stage : drawing buildings,
houses
• 3rd stage : drawing households
 5. Cluster sampling

• Principle

• Random sample of groups (“clusters”) of

units

• In selected clusters, all units or proportion

(sample) of units included
 Cluster sampling
In cluster sampling, we follow these steps:
• Divide population into clusters (usually along
geographic boundaries) randomly sample clusters
measure all units within sampled clusters

• In single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements

from each of the selected clusters are used

• In two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling

technique is applied to the elements from each of the
selected clusters
 Example: Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 Cluster sampling
• Advantages

• Simple as complete list of sampling units within

population not required

• Less travel/resources required

• Disadvantages

• Sampling error difficult to measure