LIGHT AND THE QUANTUM MODEL

WAVES
• Wavelength () - length of one complete wave

• Frequency () - # of waves that pass a point during a

certain time period
• hertz (Hz) = 1/s

• Amplitude (A) - distance from the origin to the trough or

crest
 WAVES greater amplitude
(intensity)
 crest

A origin
A
trough
 greater
frequency
(color)
 EM SPECTRUM
H
I L
G O
H W

E E
N N
E E
R R
G G
Y Y
 EM SPECTRUM

H
L
I
O
G
W
H
E
E
N
N
E
R O Y G. B I V
E
R
R
G
G
Y
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet Y
 EM SPECTRUM
• Frequency & wavelength are inversely
proportional

c = 
c: speed of light (3.00  108 m/s)
: wavelength (m, nm, etc.)
: frequency (Hz)
 EM SPECTRUM
The energy of a photon is proportional to its
frequency.

E = h
E: energy (J, joules)
h: Planck’s constant (6.6262  10-34 J·s)
: frequency (Hz)
 QUANTUM THEORY

• Planck (1900)
• Observed - emission of light from hot objects
• Concluded - energy is
emitted in small, specific
amounts (quanta)

• Quantum - minimum amount of energy change

 QUANTUM THEORY
• Planck (1900)

vs.

Classical Theory Quantum Theory

 QUANTUM THEORY
• Einstein (1905)
• Observed - photoelectric effect
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• The emission of electrons
from a metal when light
shines on it.

http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/Einstein_and_photoelectric_effect.html
 QUANTUM THEORY
• Einstein (1905)
• Concluded - light has properties of both waves
and particles

“wave-particle duality”

• Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum

of energy
 ATOMIC SPECTRA

• White light is made up of all the colors of the

visible spectrum.
• Passing it through a prism separates it.

http://www.astro.virginia.edu/class/oconnell/astr130/lec8-f02.html
 NOT ALL LIGHT IS THE SAME

• By heating a gas with electricity we can get it

to give off colors.
• Passing this light through a prism does
something different.

http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/bohr.html
 ATOMIC SPECTRUM
• Each element gives off its own characteristic
colors.
• Can be used to identify the element.
• This is how we know what stars are made of.

http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/bohr.html
WHAT CAUSES THE LINES?

• As an electron
drops from an
excited state to a
lower state, it
releases energy in
the form of light.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model
 ATOMIC SPECTRUM

Line spectrum
of the
Hydrogen
atom
THE HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
• We know that:
• Light is required to “see” electrons.
• Photons are small “packets” of light.
• Electrons are affected by photons.
• When electrons absorb photons, they are
physically moved to a new location.
• Therefore: It is impossible to know (or determine) both
the position and the velocity of an electron.
• This is known as The Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle.

18
 THE SHRÖDINGER WAVE EQUATION
• Combining Bohr’s model
with de Broglie electron-
wave theory, Shrödinger
came up with an
equation that predicted
the probability of where
an electron would be
around the nucleus.
• Electrons were no longer
in energy levels, but in
complex patterns, or
clouds.
19
 QUANTUM NUMBERS AND ORBITALS
• Quantum Numbers specify the properties of the electrons in the
orbitals.
• There are 4 different quantum numbers:
1. The Principal Quantum Number: Indicates the main energy
level
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number: Indicates the shape of
the orbital
3. Magnetic Quantum Number: Indicates the orientation of the
orbital around the nucleus (3-dimensional orientation)
4. Spin Quantum Number: Indicates the spin state of the
electron.

20
 PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER
Energy Level occupied by the electron.

• Symbol: n
• Values: 1, 2, 3, …
• Example:
• Electron in energy
level 2 has an n = 2.

21
http://www.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro101/lectures/lec07.htm
ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER

Shape of the orbital

• s orbital
• p orbital
• d orbital
• f orbital

22
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Quantum_Mechanics/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in_Atoms/Electronic_Orbitals
PERIODIC TABLE AND ORBITALS
ORBITAL LOCATION ON PERIODIC TABLE
 MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER

ℓ = 0; s orbital

ℓ = 1; p orbital

ℓ = 2 ; d orbital

ℓ = 3 ; f orbital

26
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Quantum_Mechanics/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in_Atoms/Electronic_Orbitals
 SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER
• Spin state of the electron
• Symbol: N/A
• Values: -½, +½ for any orbital or value of ℓ .

27
QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR THE FIRST FOUR
LEVELS IN THE HYDROGEN ATOM

n ℓ Orbital Designation mℓ Number of

Orbitals
1 0 1s 0 1
2 0 2s 0 1
1 2p -1,0,+1 3
3 0 3s O 1
1 3p -1,0,+1 3
2 3d -2,-1,0,+1,+2 5
4 0 4s 0 1
1 4p -1,0,+1 3
2 4d -2,-1,0,+1,+2 5
3 4f -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 7
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
• The arrangement of electrons in their orbitals around the nucleus of an
atom is called the electron configuration.
• There are 3 Rules for determining the electron configuration:
• The Aufbau Principle states that electrons will always occupy the
lowest energy orbital that is available (ground state).
• The Pauli Exclusion Principle also states that any two electrons in
the same atom cannot have the same set of quantum numbers.
• Hund’s Rule states that, in orbitals of equal energy, electrons will
first occupy different orbitals before pairing up.

29
BOHR MODEL VS. WAVE MECHANICAL MODEL
 ORBITAL ENERGIES
• In general, the energy of the different energy levels increase as n
increases, so electrons will start at level 1 and move up.
• However, different orbitals within an energy level can overlap other
energy levels.

31
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/atoms/atpt-5.html
 ORBITALS FILL IN AN ORDER
• Lowest energy to higher energy.
• Adding electrons can change the energy of the
orbital. Full orbitals are the absolute best
situation.
• However, half filled orbitals have a lower energy,
and are next best
• Makes them more stable.
• Changes the filling order

32
 BY ENERGY LEVEL

• First Energy • Second Energy

Level Level
• Has only s • Has s and p
orbital orbitals available
• only 2 electrons • 2 in s, 6 in p
• 1s2 • 2s22p6
• 8 total electrons

33
 BY ENERGY LEVEL

• Third energy • Fourth energy

level level
• Has s, p, and d • Has s, p, d, and f
orbitals orbitals
• 2 in s, 6 in p, and • 2 in s, 6 in p, 10
10 in d in d, and 14 in f
• 3s23p63d10 • 4s24p64d104f14
• 18 total electrons • 32 total electrons
34
 EXCEPTIONS

• The d orbital “likes” to be full with either 5 or 10 electrons.

• Cr should have an electron configuration of
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4
Instead, one electron is transferred from the 4s orbital
to the 3d orbital so it is ½ full.
1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5

35
 7p 6d
7s 5f
6p
5d
6s 4f
5p
4d
5s
4p
Increasing energy

3d
4s
3p
3s

2p aufbau diagram
2s
Aufbau is German for “building up”

Lets fill it out for Phosphorous

1s

36
 7p 6d
7s 5f
6p
5d
6s 4f
5p
4d
5s
4p
Increasing energy

3d
4s
3p
3s
• The first two electrons go into
2p
the 1s orbital
2s Notice the opposite direction
of the spins
• only 13 more to go...
1s

37
 7p 6d
7s 5f
6p
5d
6s 4f
5p
4d
5s
4p
Increasing energy

3d
4s
3p
3s

2p • The next electrons go into

2s the 2s orbital
• only 11 more...
1s

38
 7p 6d
7s 5f
6p
5d
6s 4f
5p
4d
5s
4p
Increasing energy

3d
4s
3p
3s

2p • The next electrons go

2s
into the 2p orbital
• only 5 more...
1s

39
 7p 6d
7s 5f
6p
5d
6s 4f
5p
4d
5s
4p
Increasing energy

3d
4s
3p
3s

2p • The next electrons go

2s
into the 3s orbital
• only 3 more...
1s

40
 7p 6d
7s 5f
6p
5d
6s 4f
5p
4d
5s
4p
Increasing energy

3d
4s
3p • The last three electrons go into
3s the 3p orbitals.
2p
They each go into separate
2s
shapes (Hund’s)
• 3 unpaired electrons
1s Orbital = 1s22s22p63s23p3
notation
41
 THE EASY WAY TO REMEMBER
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2
4s 4p 4d 4f
3s 3p 3d
2s 2p
1s • 2 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2
4s 4p 4d 4f
3s 3p 3d
2s 2p
1s • 4 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
4s 4p 4d 4f
3s 3p 3d
2s 2p
1s • 12 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
4s 4p 4d 4f 3p6 4s2
3s 3p 3d
2s 2p
1s • 20 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
4s 4p 4d 4f 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
3s 3p 3d 5s2
2s 2p
1s • 38 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
4s 4p 4d 4f 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
3s 3p 3d 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
2s 2p
1s • 56 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
4s 4p 4d 4f 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
3s 3p 3d 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
2s 2p 14 10
4f 5d 6p 7s 6 2
1s • 88 electrons
FILL FROM THE BOTTOM UP FOLLOWING THE
ARROWS
Lets do this for Hassium
7s 7p 7d 7f (atomic Number 108)
6s 6p 6d 6f
5s 5p 5d 5f • 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
4s 4p 4d 4f 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
3s 3p 3d 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
2s 2p 14 10
4f 5d 6p 7s 6 2
1s • 5f 14 6
6d
108 electrons
 NOTATION

• Electron Configuration

S 16e 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
- 2 2 6 2 4

Core e -
Valence
Inner e-
Shell
Outer Shell
 NOTATION
• Noble Gas Configuration
• Keep only valence e -
• Use previous Noble Gas

S 16e [Ne] 3s 3p
- 2 4
 ATOMIC RADIUS

• Atomic Radius
250
K
200 Na
Atomic Radius (pm)

Li
150

100

50 Ar
Ne
0
0 5 10 15 20
Atomic Number
 ATOMIC RADIUS

© 1998 LOGAL
 ATOMIC RADIUS

• Atomic Radius
Increases to the LEFT and DOWN

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
 ATOMIC RADIUS

• Why larger going down?

• Higher energy levels have larger orbitals
• Shielding - core e- block the attraction between the
nucleus and the valence e -

• Why smaller to the right?

• Increased nuclear charge without additional shielding
pulls e- in tighter
 IONIZATION ENERGY
• First Ionization Energy: energy required to remove one e - from a
neutral atom.

2500 He
Ne
1st Ionization Energy (kJ)

2000
Ar
1500

1000

500
Li Na K
0
0 5 10 15 20
Atomic Number
 IONIZATION ENERGY

• First Ionization Energy

Increases UP and to the RIGHT

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
 IONIZATION ENERGY

• Why opposite of atomic

radius?
• In small atoms, e- are
close to the nucleus
where the attraction is
stronger

• Why small jumps within © 1998 LOGAL

each group?
• Stable e- configurations
don’t want to lose e -
 IONIZATION ENERGY

• Successive Ionization Energies

Large jump in I.E. occurs when a CORE e - is

removed.

Mg 1st I.E. 736 kJ

2nd I.E. 1,445 kJ
Core e- 3rd I.E. 7,730 kJ
 IONIC RADIUS

Cations (+)
lose e-
smaller

Anions (–)
gain e-
larger

© 2002 Prentice-Hall, Inc.