Forensic Chemistry - is a branch of chemistry that

deals with the application of chemical knowledge,

principles, and procedures to matters involving civil
or criminal law and to all questions where control of
chemical compounds, products, or processes is
involved.
 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY is an
interdisciplinary field of Chemistry
tasked to solve cases that can only be
explained or resolved by applying
analytical methods of investigation and
instrumentation with chemistry as the
main core of discussion.
 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

IS A BRANCH OF CHEMISTRY THAT

DEALS WITH THE APPLICATION CHEMICAL
PRINCIPLES/THEORIES IN THE SOLUTION
OF PROBLEMS THAT MAY ARISE OR
IN CONNECTION WITH THE
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
 SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

It gains its recognition as the central

discipline in understanding other branches
of criminalistics such as forensic ballistics,
questioned documents, legal medicines,
forensic serology, dactyloscopy
(fingerprints), forensic photography, trace
analysis and forensic DNA.
 The following are the major scope of
Forensic Chemistry

1. Dangerous drugs/alcohol test/examination

2. Explosives/evidence & examination
3. Gunshot residues (paraffin casting,
firearms distance determination)
4. Forensic Toxicology
5. Blood, semen & other body fluids
6. Arson evidence examination
8. Number restoration & macro etching
examination
9. Bullet trajectory
10. Ultraviolet examination on selected
evidence
11. Tools & other marks
12. Footprints impressions
13. Trace evidence analysis (hairs, fibers,
dust, soil, etc.)
14. Glass fractures & fragments
 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY IN THE
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE?
 Forensic chemistry as a
division/section in crime laboratories
performs the following specific
functions:
Conducts qualitative & quantitative
examination/s to determine the
presence of abused drugs as well
as volatile substances.
Conducts chemical examination of
explosives & analysis of components
of explosive residues.
Conduct examination of
paraffin casts & firearms for
the presence of gunpowder
nitrates.
Conducts chemico-toxicological
examination of human internal organs,
gastric contents, blood, water, food
samples & other substance/s.
Conduct examination of gunpowder residue
pattern on clothing of both the victim &
suspect of shooting incident
to determine the probable gunshot range.
Conduct examination to suspected
fake products on cases of unfair trade
competitions.
Conduct examination in determining
the presence & percentage of alcohol
in blood sample.
Examines urine, blood samples for
presence of abused drugs.
Determines the chemical composition
of any substance or evidence that will
aid in crime investigation.
Conduct researches related to cases
being examined.
 Responds to queries of all
investigating units & render expert’s
opinion regarding matters related to
the application of chemical principles
for the purpose of assisting
investigators & develop investigative
leads.
 Practices of
Forensic Chemistry in
Scientific Crime Detection
1. Collection or reception of specimen to

be examined. Preferably the FOCO

of the SOCO Team shall collect the

specimen at the crime scene.

2. Actual examination of the evidence.

3. Laboratory report writing of the results

of the examination.

4. Court appearance.
The Standard Operating Procedure

on the Collection of Evidence at the

Crime Scene.
a. Proper description of evidence.

b. Chain of custody regarding specimen

collected that will answer when, who, & by
whom the evidence was submitted after it
was collected.

c. Records the exact position of evidence

collected for proper documentation &
court presentation.
 Consideration on reception of specimen.

a.Sufficiency of samples
b.Standard for comparison
c.Maintenance of individuality: Each evidence is
separately packed to avoid contamination
d. Labeling & sealing: this is important during
court presentation & to prevent the possibility of
tampering & or switching of evidence/s.
 The label of the evidence shall
contain the following:

a.Nature & source of evidence

b.Date & time of collection of the evidence
c.Case number
d.Name of the person collecting the evidence
e. Names of witnesses during collection of
evidence.
 Chain of Custody

Is a list of all persons who came

into possession of an item of
evidence.
To establish the chain of custody the
packaging of evidence must be marked with
information that is sufficient, to ensure proper
identification by the officer for future legal
proceedings & to withstand all the inquiries
of what happened to the evidence from the time
of its findings until it is presented in court.
Six Golden Rules in the
Practice of
Forensic Chemistry
 1.Go slowly

Take time to make the test complete,

no matter how urgent or pressure is
given to release the results.
2. Be thorough

Make careful observations & conduct

all sufficient analysis.
 3. Take down notes.

Always have with you one laboratory or

tickler notebook. Use this to record all
your observations and other entries that
are relevant to the case.
4. Consult Others.

Ask questions to other experts or opinions

from persons who are knowledgeable of
the type of crime committed in the scene
especially those who had handled similar
case.
5. Use Imagination

When handling the evidence, try to reconstruct

or picture in your mind the possible actual
situation how the crime was committed basing
on the evidence found and its location at
the scene.
6. Avoid complicated theories

Explain in layman terms to

undersigned chemical language that
could be easily understood by non-
expert.
 TWO GENERAL TYPES OF EXAMINATION
IN FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

A.Qualitative Examination

B. Quantitative Examination
 THE SEQUENCE OF FORENSIC
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION

A. Qualitative examination – identifies what is in

an unknown.
1.Physical test – investigating the physical
property of the sample/specimen.
a. Ocular inspection
b. Weighing the specimen
c. Sampling- process of selecting
representative sample for analysis.
2. Sample preparation – the process of
removing substances that may interfere in
the analysis of the desired analyte
(substance being analyze) and probably to
convert the analyte to bring it to a higher

concentration prior to analysis. The

preparation includes the following
processes;
a. Extraction – the process of removing the
analyte from the sample.

b.Pre-concentration – trace analysis often

requires the analyte to bring it to a higher
concentration prior to analysis.

c. Derivatization – is a procedure in which

analyte is chemically modified to make it
easier to detect or separate.
3. Chemical test – investigating the chemical
property of the sample specimen.

a. Color test – the process of adding specific

reagents into analyte producing
characteristics color. The results are only
presumptive indications of the possible
presence of the substance concerned.
4. Confirmatory test – a chemical process of
examination to the analyte subjecting it to
analysis utilizing instruments and or other
specific laboratory method/s.

The following are laboratory techniques

employed for confirmatory tests:
Chromatography – is specific laboratory
technique of separating mixtures into its
components. It includes;

a. liquid chromatography
b. paper chromatography
c. thin layer chromatography (TLC)
d. high pressure liquid chromatography
(HPLC)
e. gas chromatography (GC)
Spectroscopy – any method in which light is
used to detect the chemical present in the
sample. The following instruments are
included when utilizing spectroscopic
analysis.

A. Mass Spectroscopy
B. Ultraviolet – Visible Spectroscopy
C. Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy
D. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
 HANDLING PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE

THE CORE OF STUDY OF

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
HANDLING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
MEANs

RECOGNITION

IDENTIFICATION

COLLECTION

PRESERVATION

PACKAGING

TRANSPORTATION
 Physical Evidence
Encompasses any all objects that can
establish that a crime has been committed
or can provide a link between a crime & its
victim or a crime & its perpetrator. It
includes hairs, fibers, firearms, fired bullets
& cartridge cases, gunpowder residue,
drugs of abuse, explosives, debris, paints,
glass, soil, blood, urine & other
biologicalsubstances.
 Physical evidence handled by the
SOCO TEAM at the crime scene does
not limit only to those found or
recovered at the scene of the crime, but
it also considered those similar objects/
materials recovered in the body of the
victim, & those in the possession of a
suspect & in the surroundings of his
residence & in his neighborhood.
STAGES OF DUTIES OF FORENSIC CHEMIST
OR ANALYST IN CRIME LABORATORY

1. Collection & reception of evidence to be

examined. At the crime scene, it is most
important that the forensic chemist shall
personally collect the specimen, since
handling evidence are essential in the
investigation of a crime. What is avoided
here is the possibility of mishandled
sample/s renders useless examination.
2. Sufficiency of samples

Except for only one possible evidence that

can be collected at the crime scene, in the
body of the victim or in the possession of
a suspect, the more the volume or
quantity of evidence/sample were found
and collected the better it is.
3. Standard for comparison

Trace evidence like hairs, fibers, footprints,

soil, dust, bullets, drugs etc. when
preserved and collected needs standard and
control samples for comparison. These are
packed separately for its maintenance &
individuality employing standard operating
procedure, (SOCO, PNP Crime Lab., 2002).
4. Maintenance of Individuality.

Each evidence/specimen or sample

should be placed separately
in a suitable container and proper
markings and label shall be
be indicated on the package.
5. Labelling & Sealing.
On each package, label or mark
every evidence whether “Q” for
questioned sample, and “S” for
standard or control specimen.
Small fragments should be
enclosed in specimen boxes &
boxes are then properly sealed.
6. Packaging

The package of each evidence must

be appropriate to avoid loss,
tampering, spillage and spoilage.
7. Actual examination of the specimen.

The evidences that were collected handled at

the crime scene by the SOCO team are brought
to the laboratory for analyses. All collected
evidence are turned over first to the staff duty
officer, in which after recorded in the log book
are then distributed to the respective sections
depending upon the nature of the evidence to
be examined specifically by forensic experts.
8. Communication of the results of the
examination. After the laboratory
analyses of the evidence, the
forensic examiner deduce his/her
findings into a laboratory report
which becomes a documentary
evidence. These are then forwarded
to the requesting or investigating
agency. The original report will be
presented in court as exhibit.
At the crime scene, how
does a FOCO handle
evidence?
1.At the crime scene the FOCO (forensic chemical
officer) should walk around slowly to be able to
recognize and identify an evidence. A detailed
search along this line can be successful if
appropriate search methods/techniques will be
used. The type of search method will depend
upon the extent of area of the scene of the crime
2. At the crime scene, while on the process
of looking for evidence, “leave no stone
unturned”, look for something that is
unusual to present in the area. All corners
of the crime scene, furniture and fixtures
(tables, chairs must be inspected) from top
to bottom, the inner and outer area, must
be thoroughly looked into and checked.
• Right from the start upon arrival at the crime
scene, taking notes of the general appearance
of the crime scene inside the dwellings and
outside must be properly recorded. When
evidence are found proper sketches and
photographs must be employed following the
cardinal rule of documentation in forensic
science. The SOCO steps “7” and “8” in crime
scene processing are applied here.
• There are instances where at the
crime scene some experts’ opinions
are needed especially when field or
screening test shall be conducted.
The SOCO team leader decides on
this matter. Example is the preliminary
test for the presence of blood when
stains are found within the perimeter
of the crime scene.
• While on the process of crime scene
management all the members of the SOCO
officers may use their imagination. This is
imagining how the crime was committed.
There are instances where reenactment of
the crime is facilitated by the experts when
time and evidences collected allow the
circumstances.
 During the crime scene processing, at the
time a piece of evidence is found, and in
the event of possible reenactment avoid
complicated ideas that may lead to
confusion in the analysis of how the crime
was committed. For example, looking for a
knife or bolo as evidence when the victim
died due to a bullet wound of a shooting
incident.
Significance of Physical Evidence in
Crime Detection

Crime laboratories as a tool to assists in

the speedy solution of crime is useless
without physical evidence to examine.
Physical evidence must be handled and
processed in a way that prevents any
change from taking place between the
time it is removed from the crime scene
and the time it is received by the crime
laboratory (Saferstein, 2001).
• Physical evidence can be used in criminal
investigation in variety of ways:
• Associating or disassociating persons with the
crime.
• Determination of the probable time the crime
was committed.
• Locations and weapons/instruments use in the
commission of the crime.
• Aid/guide in crime reconstruction.
• It can prove to be of no value.
 Common types of Physical Evidence:

1.Biological evidence: Blood, semen, and saliva

All suspected blood, semen, or saliva – liquid of

dried, animal or human – present in any form to
suggest a relation to the offense or persons
involved in a crime. Categorically includes
blood or semen dried on fabrics or similar
objects, as well as cigarette butts that may
contain saliva residues. These substances are
subjected to and biochemical analysis for
determination of identity and origin.
2. Documents. Any handwritten
documents submitted so that
authentically or source can be
determined. Related items
include paper, ink, indented
writing, obliteration, and burned
or charred documents.
3. Drugs. Any substance
seized in violation of laws
regulating the sale,
manufacture, distribution,
and use of drugs.
4. Explosives. Any device
containing an explosive
charge, as well as all
objects removed from the
scene of an explosion that
are suspected to contain the
residues of an explosive.
 5. Fibers. Any natural or
synthetic fiber whose
transfer may be useful in
establishing a relationship
between objects and/or
persons.
6. Fingerprints. All prints
of this nature, latent and
visible. Latent prints can
be retrieved from smooth
surfaces, and fabric
materials.
7. Firearms and ammunition.
Any firearm, as well as
discharged or intact
ammunition, suspected of
being involved in a criminal
offense.
8. Glass. Any glass particle or glass fragment
that may have been transferred to a person or
object involved in a crime. Windowpanes
containing holes made by a bullet or other
projectile are included in this category.
9.Hair/s. Any animal or human present that could
link a person with a crime.
10. Impressions. This category includes
tire marking, shoe prints, foot prints,
depressions in soft soils, and all other
forms of track. Glove and other fabric
impressions, as well as bite marks in skin
or foodstuffs, are also included.
11. Organs and physiological fluids. Body
organs and fluids are submitted for toxicology
to detect possible existence of drugs and
poisons. This category includes blood to be
analyzed for the presence of alcohol and other
drugs.
12. Paint. Any paint, liquid or dried, that may
have been transferred from the surface of one
object to another during the commission of a
crime. A common example is the transfer of
paint from one vehicle to another during an
automobile collision.
13. Petroleum products. Any petroleum product
removed from a suspect or recovered from a
scene. The most common examples are gasoline
residues removed from the scene of an arson, or
grease and oil stains whose presence may
suggest involvement in a crime.
14. Plastic bags. A polyethylene disposable
bag such as a garbage bag may be
evidential in a homicide or drug case.
Examinations are conducted to associate a
bag to a similar bag in the possession of a
suspect.
15. Plastic, rubber, and other polymers.
Remnants of these man-made materials
recovered at crime scenes may be linked to
objects recovered in the possession of a
suspect or perpetrator.
16. Powder residues. Any item suspected of
containing firearm discharge residues.

17. Serial numbers. This category includes all

stolen property submitted to the laboratory for
the restoration of erased identification numbers.
18. Soils and minerals. All items containing soil
or minerals that could link a person or object to
a particular location. Common examples
are soil embedded in shoes and safe insulation
found on garments.
19. Tool marks. This category includes any
object suspected of containing the impression
of another object that served as a tool in a
crime. For example, a screw driver or crow bar
could produce tool marks by being impressed
into or scraped along a surface of a wall.
20. Wood and other vegetative matter. Any
fragments of wood, sawdust, shavings, or
vegetative matter discovered on clothing,
shoes, or tools that could link a person or

object to a crime.
 Legally evidence are classified
according to the following:

1. Direct or ordinary evidence or tangible

evidence – an object/material or
substance that is tangible to which our
senses can perceive it. It can either be
found or discovered at the crime scene, in
the position of the suspect or found within
the body of the victim.
 Scientific Evidence is defined as the
means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining
in a judicial proceeding the truth,
respecting a matter of fact, wherein
scientific knowledge is necessary. Such
scientific evidence must be relevant and
correspond to the substance of the issue,
and must not excluded by the Rules of
court.
Forms of scientific evidence:
1. Real or autoptic evidence – it is that evidence
which is addressed to the sense of the court.
2. Testimonial evidence – An expert may be
placed on the witness stand and answer
all questions to be profounded by both parties
in the case.
3. Experimental evidence – An expert witness may
be required to perform certain experiments to
prove a certain matter of fact. Sometimes may not
allow this kind of evidence.

4. Documentary Evidence – Any written evidence

presented by an expert in court which is relevant
to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded
by the Rules of Court Formal written report,
expert opinion, certificates, and disposition are
included in this group.
2. Corroborative evidence – a kind of evidence that
seeks and confirms verified and proved facts
through scientific knowledge in order to establish
a conclusion. Example is paraffin casting. When
forensic analysis provides information that the
paraffin cast is positive of nitrates of gunpowder
residue, the laboratory report and the testimony of
the expert is now accepted as a corroborative
evidence in court.
3. Circumstancial evidence – a kind of
evidence that is sufficient to produce
conviction if there is more than one
circumstancial facts from which the
inferences are derived and proven, and
the combination of such is enough to
produce conviction beyond reasonable
doubt.
• For example, if a dried brownish stain on a
cloth is suspected to contain blood, and
that after chronological forensic analyses
provides information of blood’s presence
and that it belongs to human origin and of
blood type “O, from the single evidence
submitted, the scientific data applied
through a series of forensic analyses
becomes a circumstancial evidence.
When such evidence and laboratory
reports are presented in court and were
supported by the expert through his/her
testimony stipulating the events how a
single evidence was examined revealing
such results illustrates a conviction
beyond reasonable doubts.
4. Trace evidence are objects which are
microscopic in nature. These are almost
invisible articles due to the nature of their size,
and characteristics. These items are often left
on either side after a contact between objects
and or people involved with a crime or present
at a crime scene. Trace evidence can also be
minute material from the crime scene and or in
the body of the victim. Such evidence may be
used in the reconstruction of the crime or as a
proof that the suspect committed some criminal
act. These substances are body fluids, paint,
glass, fibers, hair, soil, plant debris, and
cosmetics.
• 5. Associative evidence – are physical
evidence which are used as tools for
reconstructing a crime scene that will
generally locate evidence that can be used to
associate or disassociate a suspect to a
crime. Example are Hairs, fibers, blood and
other body fluids. Included also are paint,
glass, firearms, bullets, fingerprints and other
imprint evidence.
Importance of Physical Evidence in Crime
Detection
• Crime laboratories as a tool to assists in the
speedy solution of crime is useless without
physical evidence to examine. Physical evidence
must be handled and processed in a way that
prevents any change from taking place between
the time it is removed from the crime scene and
the time it is received by the crime laboratory
(Saferstein, 2001). The experts identify first the
chemical identity of a substance aided with the
existing analytical techniques then compare this to
a standard sample. They do this many times until
they are convinced and satisfied for a positive
identification of the unknown sample.
• Physical evidence can be used in criminal
investigation in variety of ways:
1. Associating or disassociating persons with
crime.
2. Determination of time when the crime was
committed.
3. Locations and instruments of the crime.
4. Aid in reconstruction of the crime.
5. It can prove to be of no value.
Crime involves people and places.
The victim and the doer of the
crime are the people, and the area
where the assassin or the culprit
does his/her activity is the place.
• Crime defies traditional wisdom.
• Dead man do tell tales through
evidence.
• Find evidence that is admissible in
court, and the mystery of crime will be
solved.
• Someone must speak for the dead,
that is why we need to look for
evidence, because they are the silent
witness
Trace evidence is the term
applied to any substance
normally very small in size or
minute quantity (trace amount)
which are too small to be
observed directly by the human
eye.
• The origin of trace evidence
principle started in 1910-1928 by
French Criminologist Edmond
Locard, who was one of the
pioneering scientists in the field of
forensic science.
He posited that whenever two
objects come into contact there
is a transference of materials
between them, or “every
contact leaves a trace”.