BABU BANARASI DAS

UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
BY
HIMA SAXENA
Problem Statement
 How do we represent relationship
between two related elements ?
Relations
Definition

Let A and B be sets. A binary relation

from A to B is a subset of A x B.

 A binary relation from A to B is a set R of

ordered pairs where the first element from
each ordered pair comes from A and the
second one from B.
 Notation: a R b denotes that (a,b) Є R
Definition
Example:
Let A = {a,b}
B = {1,2}
Then
{(a,1),(a,2),(b,1)} is a relation from
A to B.
(b,2) is in A X B

Note that (b,1) belongs to R but not (b,2)

Function as Relations
 Relations are generalization of functions that
can be used to represent much wider class of
relationships between sets.
 Functions can be visualized as subset of
relations.

Example: F: A  B is a subset of A x B
Relations on a Set
 A relation on a set A is represented as A to A

Example: A = {1,2,3}, R = {(a, b)| a < b}

Represented as {(1,2), (2,3),(1,3)}
 Properties of Relations

A relation R on a set A is reflexive if

(a, a) Є R for element a Є A

Example: A = {1,2,3}
R1 ={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}
R2 ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3)}

Here, R2 is reflexive whereas R1 is not.

R1 contains (1,1) but not (2,2) & (3,3).
Properties of Relations…(continued)

A relation R on a set A is symmetric if (b,a) Є R

whenever (a,b) Є R, for all a, b Є A

A relation R on a set A such that (a,b) Є R and

(b,a) Є R only if a = b, for all a,b Є A, is called
antisymmtric.
Properties of Relations…(continued)
Example: A = {1,2,3}
R1 ={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1)}
R2 ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)}

Here, R1is symmetric because in each case (b,a)

belongs to the relation whenever (a,b) does.

R2 is antisymmetric. There is no pair of elements

a and b with a≠b such that both (a,b) and (b,a)
belongs to the relation.
Properties of Relations…(continued)

A relation R on a set A is transitive if (a,b) Є R

and (b,c) Є R, then (a,c) Є R, for all a,b,c Є A.

Example: A = {1,2,3}
R1 ={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2)}

R1 is transitive.
Combining Relations

R1 ={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
R2 ={(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}

R1 U R2 ={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}

R1 – R2 = {(2,2),(3,3)}
R2 – R1 = {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
Composite Relations

Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B and S a

relation from set B to set C.

The composite of R and S is the relation

consisting of ordered pairs (a,c), where a Є A, c
Є C, and for which there exists an element b
Є B such that (a,b) Є R and (b,c) Є S.

The composite of R and S is denoted by S o R.

Composite Relations
Example: A = {1,2,3}
B = {1,2,3,4}
C = {0,1,2}
R:AB
R = {(1,1), (1,4), (2,3), (3,1), (3,4)}

S:BC
S = {(1,0), (2,0), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1)}

S o R = {(1,0),(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(3,0),(3,1)}
Composite Relations

Let R be a relation on the set A.

 The powers Rn,n = 1,2,3,… are defined

recursively by
R1 = R and Rn+1 = Rn o R

 The relation R on a set A is transitive if and

only if Rn R for n = 1,2,3,…
Theorem 1
The relation R on a set A is transitive if and
only if Rn R for n = 1,2,3,…
Proof:
=> : Rn R
Given, Rn is a subset of R for n = 1,2,3. If (a,b) and (b,c) are in
R, then (a, c) Є R2 by definition of composite relationship.
=> R2 R
 (a, c) Є R
 R is transitive
Proof contd …………
<= Using Mathematical induction
Basic Step:R is a subset of R
Assume Rn R
Inductive Step:
We know that by composite relationship
1. (a, b) Є Rn+1 , Rn+1= Rn o R
 For element x with x Є A such that (a, x) Є R and (x, b) Є Rn
2. Since Rn R => (x, b) Є R
3. R is transitive and (a, x) Є R and (x, b) Є R
 (a, b) Є R
 Rn+1 R
 N-ary Relations & Databases

Definition:
Let A1, A2, …, An be sets. An n-ary relation on these sets
is a subset of A1 x A2 x .. X An. The sets A1, A2, .., An are
domains. n is its degree.

Example: Database relations.

Student_Name ID_Number Major GPA

Operations on N-ary Relations
Student_Name ID_Number Major GPA

Definition:
Projection Pi1, i2,..,im maps the n-tuple (a1,a2,..,an) to the
m-tuple (ai1,..,aim) where m<= n.
Example: P(1,3) on Students Database: <Student_Name,
Major>.
 Operations on N-ary Relations
Student_Name ID_Number Major GPA

Definition:
Selection Sc maps the n-ary relation R to the n-ary relation
of all n-tuples from R that satisfy the condition C.
Example: Condition C can be Major = Computer Science.
Gives a set of n-tuples with students majoring CS.
 Operations on N-ary Relations
Student_Name Address Phone Cell

Definition:
R: relation of degree m. S: relation of degree n. Join Jp(R,S)
[p <= m and p <= n], is a relation of degree m + n – p that
consists of all (m + n – p) tuples (a1, a2,..,am-p, c1, c2,..,
cp, b1, b2,…, bn-p). (a1, a2,..,am-p, c1, c2,.., cp) in R.
(c1, c2,.., cp, b1, b2,…, bn-p) in S.
Example:Join J1 on the 2 databases: Produces a database
with tuples <Student_Name, ID_Number, Major, GPA,
Address, Phone, Cell>
Representing Relation

Different ways of representing Relation are:

 Ordered pairs (which we have already seen)

 Zero-one matrices (useful for representing
relations in computer programs)
 Directed Graphs (useful in understanding the
properties of relations)
Representing Relation using Matrices
Let A = {a1 ,a2 ,a3,…,am }
B = {b1 ,b2 ,b3 ,…,bn }

The relation R can be represented by the matrix

MR = [mij], where

1 if ( ai ,b j )R
mij 
0 if ( ai ,b j )R
Representing Relation using Matrices
Example 1:
A = {1,2,3} B = {1,2}  0 0
Given R = {(2,1),(3,1),(3,2)} MR  1 0
Find MR?  1 1 

 0 1 0 0 0
Example 2:
A = {1,2,3} B = {1,2,3,4,5} Given MR  1 0 1 1 0
Find R?  1 0 1 0 1

R = {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1),

(3,3), (3,5)}
Relation Properties using Matrices
 R is reflexive if and only if 1 
mii = 1, for i = 1,2,…,n. i.e  1 
 
if all the diagonal elements M R  1 
 
of MR are equal to 1.  1 
 1

 1 0 1 1
 R is symmetric if and only  1 1 0 1
if mij = mji, for all pairs of  
integers i and j with M R  0 1 1 0 
 
i = 1,2,…,n and  1 0 1 1 
j = 1,2,…,n  1 1 0 1 
Relation Properties using Matrices
 1 0 0 1
 R is antisymmetric if and
 0 1 0 0
only if mij = 1 with i ≠ j,  
then mji = 0 M R  1 0 1 0 
 
 1 1 0 1 
 0 1 1 0 
Example: The relation R on a
set is given by  1 1 0
Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or M R 111
antisymmetric ?
 011
R is reflexive, symmetric and not
antisymmetric.
 Relations & Matrices

 1 0 1  1 0 1
M R1 1 0 0 M R 2 0 1 1
 0 1 0  1 0 0
1 0 1   1 01
MR1UR2 = 1 1 1  MR1 o MR2 =  1 01
   
11 0  0 11
Representing Relation using Digraphs
 A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of
vertices together with a set E of ordered pairs of
elements of V called edges. The vertex a is call the initial
vertex of the edge (a,b), and the vertex b is called the
terminal vertex of this edge.
E
Example:
D
R = {(A,B), (A,C), (A,D), (B,D),
(C,D), (C,E), (D,E), (E,A)} C
B

A
Relation Properties using Digraphs
Relation Properties using Digraphs
A relation R is transitive if and only if whenever there is an
edge from vertex x to a vertex y and an edge from a
vertex y to a vertex z, there is an edge from x to z
Closures of Relations
 Let R be a relation on a set A. R may or may not have
some property P, such as reflexivity, symmetry, or
transitivity.
 If there is a relation S with property P containing R such
that S is a subset of every relation with property P
containing R, then S is called the closure of R with
respect to P.
 3 types of Closures exists:
1. Reflexive Closure
2. Symmetric Closure
3. Transitive Closure
Reflexive Closure
 Given a relation R on a set A is not reflexive.

 The reflexive closure of R can be formed by adding ordered

pairs (a,a) not already in A, where a Є A.

 These new additions will make the new relation reflexive

which contains R.

Example: A = {1,2,3}
Let R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (3,2)}

R is not reflexive since it does not contain (2,2) and (3,3).

Adding these two ordered pairs to R will make the new relation,
say S, reflexive. Also, S contains R.

Thus, S is a reflexive closure of R.

Symmetric Closure
 Given a relation R on a set A is not symmetric.
 The symmetric closure of a relation R can be constructed by
adding all the ordered pairs of the form (b,a), where (a,b) is in
R, that are not already in R.

Example: A = {1,2,3}
Let R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (3,2)}

The ordered pair (2,3) is to be added to R. This new relation S

will then be symmetric. S will then be called the symmetric
closure of R.
Transitive Closure using Digraphs
 A Path from a to b in the directed graph in G is a sequence of
edges (x0,x1),(x1,x2),…,(xn-1,xn) in G, where n is a nonnegative
integer, and x0 = a and xn = b, that is, a sequence of edges
where the terminal vertex of an edge is the initial vertex in
the next edge in the path. The path is denoted by x0, x1, x2,…,
xn-1, xn and has length n.
E
Example: Consider the directed graph G:
D
Path(A,E) = {A,C,E},{A,D,E},{A,B,D,E},
{A,C,D,E} C
B
A
Transitive Closure using Digraphs
 Let R be a relation on a set A.

 There is a path of length n, where n is a positive integer, from a

to b if and only if (a,b) Є Rn.

 The connectivity relation R* consists of the pairs (a,b) such that

there is a path of length at least one from a to b in R.

 Rn consists of the pairs (a,b) such that there is a path of length n

from a to b, it follows that

R*   R n
n 1
 The transitive closure of a relation equals the connectivity
relation R*
Transitive Closure using Digraphs
 Given a digraph G, the D E
transitive closure of G is the
digraph G* such that
B
 G* has the same
vertices as G G
C
 if G has a directed path
from u to v (u  v), G* A
has a directed edge
from u to v
D E
 The transitive closure
provides reachability
information about a digraph B
C
A G*
Transitive Closure using Matrices
 Let MR be the zero-one matrix of the relation R.
 The zero-one matrix of the transitive closure R* is
MR* = MRMR[2]MR[3]…MR[n]

 Procedure for computing the transitive closure

Transitive Closure using Matrices
Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2)}

R can be represented by the following matrix MR:

 0 0 1 1
 1 0 0 0
MR  
 0 1 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0
Transitive Closure using Matrices
 0 0 1 1  0 1 0 0  1 0 0 0
 1 0 0 0  0 0 1 1  0 1 0 0
M R   M R[ 2 ]   M R[ 3]  
 0 1 0 0  1 0 0 0  0 0 1 1
     
 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 

 0 0 1 1  1 1 1 1
 1 0 0 0  1 1 1 1
M R[ 4 ]   M R* M R  M R[ 2 ]  M R[3]  M R[ 4 ]  
 0 1 0 0  1 1 1 1
   
 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 
Warshall’s Algorithm

 Warshall’s Algorithm is based on the construction of a

sequence of zero-one matrices.

 If a, v1,v2,…,vk,b is a path, its interior vertices are v1,v2,…,vk

 The algorithm computes Wk = [wij(k)], where wij(k) = 1 if there

exists a path from vi to vj such that all interior vertices of this
path are in the set {v1,v2,…,vk} and is 0 otherwise.
Warshall’s Algorithm
Warshall’s Algorithm
Example: A = {a,b,c,d}
R = {(a,d), (b,a), (b,c), (c,a), (c,d), (d,c)}

 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1
 1 0 1 0  1 0 1 1  1 0 1 1
W0 M R   W1   W2  
 1 0 0 1  1 0 0 1  1 0 0 1
     
 0 0 1 0   0 0 1 0   0 0 1 0 

 0 0 01 1 011
 1 0 11 1 011
W3   W4  
 1 0 01 1 011
   
 1 0 1 1  1 0 11
W4 is the matrix of the transitive closure.
Equivalence Relations
 A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation
if and only if
1. R is reflexive
2. R is symmetric, and
3. R is transitive

Example:
The congruent modulo m relation on the set of integers i.e.
{<a, b>| a Ξ b (mod m)}, where m is a positive integer
greater than 1, is an equivalence relation.
Equivalence Classes
 For an equivalence relation R on a set A, the set of the
elements of A that are related to an element, say a, of A
is called the equivalence class of element a.

 The equivalence class of a is denoted by [a].

 [a] = {s | (a, s) Є R}.

 IF b Є [a], then b is called a representative of this

equivalence class.
Equivalence Classes
Example:

For the equivalence relation of hours on a clock,

equivalence classes are

[1] = {1, 13, 25, ... } = {1+ 12n: n Є N} ,

[2] = {2, 14, 26, ... } = {2+ 12n: n Є N} ,
........,

where N is the set of natural numbers. There are

altogether twelve of them.
Equivalence Classes and Partitions

 For an equivalence relation R on a set A, every element of A is in

an equivalence class. For if an element, say b , does not belong to
the equivalence class of any other element in A, then the set
consisting of the element b itself is an equivalence class.

 Another property of equivalence class is that equivalence classes

of two elements of a set A are either disjoint or identical, that is
either
1. [a]=[b]

2. [a ] [b] 

 Thus the set A is partitioned into equivalence classes by an

equivalence relation R on A.
Equivalence Classes and Partitions
 Let A be a set and let A1, A2, ..., An be subsets of A. Then {A1, A2, ...,
An } is a partitionn of A, if and only if

1. A  A
i 1
i

2. Ai A j  if Ai ≠Aj , 1≤ i, j ≤ n

Example:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

A1 = {1, 5}, A2 = {3}, and A3 = {2, 4}.

Then {A1, A2, A3} is a partition of A since the subsets satisfy both the
conditions.

However, B1 = {1, 2, 5}, B2 = {2, 3}, and B3 = {4} do not form a

partition for A.
Equivalence Relations
 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. Then the equivalence
classes of R form a partition of S.


Conversely, given a partition {Ai | i Є I} of the set S, there is an
equivalence relation R that has the sets Ai, i Є I, as its equivalence
classes.

Example: S = { 1,2,3,4,5,6}

A1 = {1,2,3}, A2 = {4,5}, and A3 = {6}

{A1, A2, A3} are the equivalence classes of R. The pair (a, b) Є R
if and only if a and b are in the same equivalence class.

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)

belong to R due to A1.

Similarly, (4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5) due to A2 and (6,6) due to A3

Partial Orderings
 A relation R on a set S is called a partial ordering or
partial order if and only if
1. R is reflexive
2. R is antisymmetric
3. R is transitive.

 A set S together with partial ordering R is called a

partially ordered set, or poset, and is denoted by
(S,R).
Partial Orderings
Example:
 The “greater than or equal” relation (≥) is a partial
order on the set of integers

 It is reflexive: a ≥ a for all a  Z

 It is antisymmetric: if a ≥ b then the only way that
b≥ a is when b = a
 It is transitive: if a ≥ b and b ≥ c, then a ≥ c

 Note that ≥ is the partial ordering on the set of integers

 (Z, ≥) is the partially ordered set, or poset

Partial Orderings … (continued)

 The symbol is used to represent any relation when

discussing partial orders
 Not just the less than or equals to relation
 Can represent ≤, ≥,, etc
 Thus, a  b denotes that (a, b)  R
 The poset is (S,)

 The symbol  is used to denote a  b but a ≠ b

 If  represents ≥, then  represents >
Comparability

 The elements a and b of a poset (S,) are called comparable if

either a  b or b  a.


Meaning if (a, b)  R or (b, a)  R


It can’t be both because  is antisymmetric
 Unless a = b, of course


If neither a  b nor b  a, then a and b are incomparable
 Meaning they are not related to each other

 If all elements in S are comparable, the relation is a total

ordering.
Comparability
Example:
 Let  be the “divides” operator |

 In the poset (Z+,|), are the integers 3 and 9 comparable?

 Yes, as 3 | 9

 Are 7 and 5 comparable?

 No, as 7 | 5 and 5 | 7

 Thus, as there are pairs of elements in Z+ that are not

comparable, the poset (Z+,|) is a partial order.
Well-ordered sets
 (S,) is a well-ordered set if:

(S,) is a totally ordered poset

Every non-empty subset of S has a least element

Example: (Z,≤)

is a total ordered poset (every element is comparable to
every other element)

It has no least element

Thus, it is not a well-ordered set

Example: (S,≤) where S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }


is a total ordered poset (every element is comparable to
every other element)

Has a least element (1)

Thus, it is a well-ordered set
Lexicographic ordering


Consider two posets: (S,1) and (T,2)

 Order Cartesian products of these two posets via

lexicographic ordering


Let s1  S and s2  S

Let t1  T and t2  T

(s1,t1)  (s2,t2) if either:

s 1  1 s2

s1 = s2 and t1 2 t2

 Lexicographic ordering is used to order dictionaries

Lexicographic ordering
 Let S be the set of word strings (i.e. no spaces)

 Let T be the set of strings with spaces

 Both the relations are alphabetic sorting

 Thus, posets are: (S,) and (T,)

 Order (“run”, “noun: to…”) and (“set”, “verb: to…”)


As “run”  “set”, the “run” Cartesian product comes before
the “set” one

 Order (“run”, “noun: to…”) and (“run”, “verb: to…”)


Both the first part of the Cartesian products are equal

“noun” is first (alphabetically) than “verb”, so it is ordered
first
Lexicographic ordering

Consider the two strings a1a2a3…am, and b1b2b3…bn
 The formal definition for lexicographic ordering of strings is as
follows:

 If m = n (i.e. the strings are equal in length)


(a1, a2, a3, …, am)  (b1, b2, b3, …, bn) using the
comparisons discussed
Example: “run”  “set”


If m ≠ n, then let t be the minimum of m and n then a1a2a3…am,
is less than b1b2b3…bn if and only if either of the following are true:


(a1, a2, a3, …, at)  (b1, b2, b3, …, bt)
Example: “run”  “sets” (t = 3)

(a1, a2, a3, …, at) = (b1, b2, b3, …, bt) and m < n
Example: “run”  “running”
Hasse Diagrams
 Consider the directed graph for a finite poset
({1,2,3,4},≤).
 Many edges in the directed graph for a finite poset do
not have to be shown since they must be present.

4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3
Hasse

Diagram

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
Hasse Diagrams
Example: For a poset ({1,2,3,4,5,6},|)
Maximal and Minimal Elements
 Let (A, R) be a poset.

 An element of a poset is called maximal if it is not less

than any element of the poset.
 a is maximal in the poset (A, R) if there is no b Є
A
such that a R b

 An element of a poset is called minimal if it is not

greater than any element of the poset.
 a is minimal in the poset (A, R) if there is no b Є A
such that b R a
Maximal and Minimal Elements
Example: Consider the Hasse Diagrams of P({a,b,c},  )

{a,b,c} is the maximal element and Φ is the minimal element

Maximal and Minimal Elements
 Consider the following poset ({2,4,5,10,12,20,25},|)

12 20

Maximal Elements : 12, 20, 25

4 10 25

Minimal Elements : 2, 5

2 5
Least and Greatest Element
 Let (A,R} be a poset.
 A element a in A is the least element in A if every
element b in A, a R b.
 A element a in A is the greatest element in A if every
element b in A, b R a.

c d d

d e (i) Least Element : a

Greatest Element : No Element

b c c

(ii) Least Element : No Element

a b
Greatest Element : d
a a b
(i) (ii) (iii)
(iii) Least Element : No Element
Upper and Lower Bound

 Let S be the subset in the poset (A,R).

 If there exists a element a in A such that s R a for all s in

S, then a is called an upper bound.

 If there exists a element a in A such that a R s for all s in

S, then a is called an lower bound.
Upper and Lower Bound
Example: Consider the following poset with the Hasse
Diagram

h j Subsets:

g f {a,b,c}: Upper Bound: e,f,j,h

Lower Bound: a
{j,h}: Upper Bound: No one
d e
Lower Bound: a,b,c,d,e,f
{a,c,d,f}: Upper Bound: f,g,j
b c Lower Bound: a

a
Least Upper and Greatest Lower Bound

 Consider a poset (A,R).

 The element x is called the least upper bound of the

subset A if x is an upper bound that is less than every
other upper bound of A.

 The element y is called the greatest lower bound of A if

y is an lower bound of A and z R y where z is a lower
bound.
Least Upper and Greatest Lower Bound

Example: Consider the following poset with the Hasse

Diagram

h j

Least Upper Bound : {b,d,g}

g f

Upper Bound : g ,h

d e Since g  h, g is the least

upper bound.

b c Greatest Lower Bound : {b,d,g}

a Lower Bound : a, b
Lattices
 A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has
both a least upper bound and greatest lower bound is
called a lattice.

Example:
Lattices
Example:
Topological Sorting

 A total ordering  is said to be compatible with the

partial ordering R if a  b whenever a R b.

 Constructing a compatible total ordering from a partial

ordering is called topological sorting.

 Topological sorting has application to the scheduling of

projects.
Topological Sorting
Algorithm Topological Sort
Input: A finite poset <A, R>.

Output: A sequence of the elements of A preserving the order

R.
i := 1;

while ( A ≠ Φ ) {
pick a minimal element bi from A;
A := A - {bi};
i := i + 1;
output b
}
Topological Sorting
Example: Consider a poset ({1,2,4,5,12,20},|)

12 20
The algorithm selects the minimal

elements in the following order:

4 1 5  2  4  20  12.

The second minimal element can be

2 5
either be 5 or 2.

1 Similarly, either 20 or 12 can be

chosen at the later stage.