MATHEMATICS IN THE

MODERN WORLD
LOGIC
A R J A Y T. A LT O VA R
M AT H I N S T R U C T O R
 FORMAL LOGIC
THE SCIENCE OR STUDY OF
HOW TO EVALUATE ARGUMENTS
& REASONING.
 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
A statement (or proposition) is a declarative
sentence which is either true or false, but not both. A
formal proposition is written using propositional logic
notation, p, q, and r are used to represent statements.

Propositional logic is a mathematical system

for reasoning about propositions and how they relate
to one another.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
 Which of the following are
statements?
1. Manila is the capital of the Is true
Philippines. A statement.

2. What day is It is a
it? question
Not a
statement.
3. Help me, It cannot be categorized as true or
please. false.
Not a
statement.
4. He is Is neither true nor false - “he” is not
handsome. specified.
Not a statement.
Examples of Ambiguous
Statements

1. Mathematics is fun.

2. Calculus is more interesting than

Trigonometry.
3. It was hot in Manila.
4. Street vendors are poor.
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
Logical connectives are used to combine simple
statements which are referred as compound statements.

 A compound statement is a statement composed

of two or more simple statements connected by
logical connectives
“or” “not” “if then”
“and “exclusive- “if and only
” or.” if”
 A statement which is not compound is said to be
simple (also called atomic).
 CONJUNCTION
The conjunction of the statement p
and q is the compound statement
p q pq
“p and q.”
T T T
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the
T F F
F T F
symbol for “and.”

Property 1: If p is true and q is true, F F F

then p  q is true; otherwise p
 q is false. Meaning, the
conjunction of two
statements is true only if
each statement is true.
EXAMPLE
Determine the truth value of each of the following
conjunction.
1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a Fals
mammal.
Fals True e
e
2. 2 + 2=4 and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is Fals
the first female Philippine President. e

3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term True

Philippine President and 6 – 2 = 4
 DISJUNCTION

p q pq
The disjunction of the statement p, q is the

T T T
compound statement “p or q.”

T F T
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for
“or.” F T T
Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p F F F
and q are true, then p  q is true;
otherwise p  q is false. Meaning,
the disjunction of two statements is
false only if each statement is false.
EXAMPLE
Determine the truth value of each of the following
disjunction.
1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing True
champion.
False True

2. 2 + 3 = 5 or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first

True
female Philippine President.

3. 10 x 2 = 12 or man is not a mammal. False

 NEGATION

The negation of the statement p is p p

T F
F T
denoted by  p, where  is the symbol for
“not.”
Property 3: If p is true,  p is false.
Meaning, the truth value of the
negation of a statement is
always the reverse of the truth
value of the original statement.
EXAMPLE

The following are statements for p, find the

corresponding  p.
1. 3 + 5 = 3 + 5  8.
8.
2. Sofia is a girl. Sofia is a
boy.
3. Achaiah is not Achaiah is
here. here.
 CONDITIONAL

p q pq
The conditional (or implication) of the

T T T
statement p and q is the compound statement

T F F
“if p then q.”

F T T
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the

F F T
symbol for “if then.” p is called hypothesis (or
antecedent or premise) and q is called
conclusion (or consequent or consequence).

Property 4: The conditional statement pq

is false only when p is true and q is false;
otherwise p  q is true. Meaning p  q states
that a true statement cannot imply a false
statement.
WHEN P DOES NOT IMPLY Q

p q pq
 p → q means “if p is true, q is true as well.”

T T T
 Recall: The only way for p → q to be false is if

T F F
we know that p is true but q is false.
F T T
F F T
Rationale:
 If p is false, p → q doesn't guarantee anything.
It's true, but it's not meaningful.
 If p is true and q is true, then the statement
“if p is true, then q is also true” is itself true.
 If p is true and q is false, then the statement
“if
p is true, q is also true” is false.
EXAMPLE

Obtain the truth value of each of the following

conditional statements.
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is Tru
sour. Fals False e
e
2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6False
=
1. True False

3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6 Tru

3 = 2.
Fals True e
e
 BICONDITIONAL

p q pq
The biconditional of the statement p and q is

T T T
the compound statement “p if and only if q.”

T F F
F T F
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol

F F T
for “if and only if.”
Property 5: If p and q are true or both false,
then p  q is true; if p and q have
opposite truth values, then p  q is
false.
EXAMPLE

Determine the truth values of each of the following

biconditional statements.

1. 2 + 8 = 10 if and only if 6 – True

3 = 3.
Tru True
e
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is False
equivalent to fish live in moon.

3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for True

4 + 2 = 7.
 PREDICATE

A predicate (or open statements) is a

statement whose truth depends on the value
of one or more variables.

Example:
“x is an even number” is a predicate whose
truth depends on the value of x.
 PREDICATE

A predicate can also be denoted by a

function-like notation.

Example:
P(x) = “x is an even number.” Now P(2) is
true, and P(3) is false.
If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or
false, depending on the value of x.
 PROPOSITIONAL FUNCTION

A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it

becomes a statement only when variable x is
given particular value.

Propositional functions are denoted as P(x),

Q(x),R(x), and so on.
 PREDICATE
Example:
“If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of
2.”
The given sentence has the logical form P(x)  Q(x)
and its truth value can be determine for a specific
value of x.
Existential
Example: Quantifiers
There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.

For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an

odd number.
Universal
Quantifiers
 EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER

The statement “there exists an x such

that P(x),” is symbolized by x P(x).
The symbol  is called the existential
quantifier
The statement “x P(x)”is true if there is at
least one value of x for which P(x) is true.
 UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER

The statement “for all x, P(x),” is symbolized

by x P(x).
The symbol  is called the universal
quantifier.
The statement “x P(x)”is true if only if P(x)
is true for every value of x.
 QUANTIFIERS

Quantifier Symbol Translation

Existential  There exists
There is some
For some
For which
For at least one

Such that
Satisfying
Universal  For all
For each
For every
For any
Given any
STATEMENTS RELATED TO THE
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

Statements Equivalent
Converse of p q q p
Inverse of p q p  q

Contrapositive of p q q  p
 STATEMENTS RELATED TO THE
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive

of the statement:

If I get the Job, I will rent the apartment.

CONVERSE: If I rent the apartment, then I get
the job.
INVERSE: If I do not get the job then I will not
rent the apartment.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: If I do not rent the apartment
then I did not get the job.
REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning
(also called induction) involves forming general
theories from specific observations.

Observing something happen repeatedly and

concluding that it will happen again in the same way
is an example of inductive reasoning.
Example 1:

Observation:
A low-cost airline flight is delayed

Observe a pattern:
Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed

Develop a theory or general (preliminary)

conclusion
Low cost airlines always have delays
Example 2:

Observation:
Dogs A and B have fleas

Observe a pattern:
All observed dogs have fleas

Develop a theory or general (preliminary)

conclusion
All observed dogs have fleas
Deductive Reasoning
(also called deduction) involves starting from a set of
general premises and then drawing a specific
conclusion that contains no more information than the
premises themselves.

Deductive reasoning is sometimes called deduction

(note that deduction has other meanings in the
contexts of mathematics and accounting).
Example:

1. Start with an existing theory (and create a problem

statement)
Low cost airlines always have delays
2. Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis based on existing
theory
If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always
experience delays
3. Collect data to test the hypothesis
Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
4. Analyze and test the data
5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed
5. Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis
5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject
hypothesis
 COUNTEREXAMPLE

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true

in all cases.

If you can find one case for which statement is not true,
this is called a counterexample, then the statement is
a false statement.

EXAMPLE:
Verify that the statement is false by finding a
counterexample.
END OF PRESENTATION