Chapter 23

Nuclear Reactions and Their

Applications

23-1 Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications

23.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability

23.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

23.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei

23.4 The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter

23.5 Applications of Radioisotopes

23.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy

23.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion

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23-3
Figure 23.1 Three types of radioactive emissions in an electric field.

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23-5
 Types of Radioactive Decay: Balancing Nuclear Equations
TotalA TotalA
TotalZ ReactantsTotalZ Products
Alpha decay - A decreases by 4 and Z decreases by 2. Every
element heavier than Pb undergoes  decay.

Beta decay - ejection of a  particle from the nucleus from the conversion
of a neutron into a proton and the expulsion of 0-1. The product nuclide
will have the same A but will be one atomic number higher.

Positron decay - a positron (0-1) is the antiparticle of an electron. A

proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron with the expulsion of the
positron. A remains the same but the atomic number decreases.

Electron capture - a nuclear proton is converted into a neutron by the

capture of an electron. A remains the same but the atomic number
decreases.

Gamma emission - energy release; no change in Z or A.

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 Sample Problem 23.1 Writing Equations for Nuclear Reactions

PROBLEM: Write balanced equations for the following nuclear reactions:

(a) Naturally occurring thorium-232 undergoes  decay.
(b) Zirconium-86 undergoes electron capture.
PLAN: Write a skeleton equation; balance the number of neutrons
and charges; solve for the unknown nuclide.

SOLUTION: (a) 232

Th
90
228
X+
88
4
2α

A = 228 and Z = 88 232

Th
90
228
Ra +
88
4
α
2

(b) 8640Zr + 0-1e A

Z X

A = 86 and Z = 39 86
40 Zr + 0-1e 86
39 Y

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Figure 23.2 A plot of number of neutrons vs. number of protons
for the stable nuclides.

23-8
 Nuclear Stability and Mode of Decay
•Very few stable nuclides exist with N/Z < 1.

•The N/Z ratio of stable nuclides gradually increases a Z increases.

•All nuclides with Z > 83 are unstable.

•Elements with an even Z usually have a larger number of stable

nuclides than elements with an odd Z.

•Well over half the stable nuclides have both even N and even Z.

Predicting the Mode of Decay

•Neutron-rich nuclides undergo  decay.

•Neutron-poor nuclides undergo positron decay or electron capture.

•Heavy nuclides undergo  decay.

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23-10
 Sample Problem 23.2 Predicting Nuclear Stability

PROBLEM: Which of the following nuclides would you predict to be stable

and which radioactive? Explain.
(a) 18
Ne
10 (b) 32
S
16 (c) 236
Th
90 (d) 123
Ba
56

PLAN: Stability will depend upon the N/Z ratio, the value of Z, the value
of stable N/Z nuclei, and whether N and Z are even or odd.

SOLUTION:

(a) Radioactive (b) Stable

N/Z = 0.8; there are too few N/Z = 1.0; Z < 20 and N and
neutrons to be stable. Z are even.

(c) Radioactive (d) Radioactive

Every nuclide with Z > 83 is N/Z = 1.20; Figure 23.2A

radioactive. shows stability when N/Z ≥
1.3.

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 Sample Problem 23.3 Predicting the Mode of Nuclear Decay

PROBLEM: Use the atomic mass of the element to predict the mode(s) of
decay of the following radioactive nuclides:

(a) 12
B
5 (b) 234
U
92 (c) 81
As
33
(d) 127
La
57

PLAN: Find the N/Z ratio and compare it to the band stability. Then predict
which of the modes of decay will give a ratio closer to the band.

SOLUTION:
(a) N/Z = 1.4 which is high. (b) The large number of
The nuclide will probably undergo  neutrons makes this a good
decay altering Z to 6 and lowering the candidate for  decay.
ratio.
(c) N/Z = 1.24 which is in the band (d) N/Z = 1.23 which is too low for
of stability. It will probably undergo this area of the band. It can
 decay or positron emission. increase Z by positron emission or
electron capture.

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 Figure 23.3 The 238U decay series.

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 N
Decay rate (A) = -
t
SI unit of decay is the becquerel (Bq) = 1 d/s.

curie (Ci) = number of nuclei disintegrating each second in

1 g of radium-226 = 3.70 x 1010 d/s

Nuclear decay is a first-order rate process.

Large k means a short half-life and vice versa.

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 Figure 23.4 Decrease in the number of 14C nuclei over time.

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23-16
 Sample Problem 23.4 Finding the Number of Radioactive Nuclei

PROBLEM: Strontium-90 is a radioactive byproduct of nuclear reactors that

behaves biologically like calcium, the element above it in Group 2A(2).
When 90Sr is ingested by mammals, it is found in their milk and eventually in
the bones of those drinking the milk. If a sample of 90Sr has an activity of
1.2 x 1012 d/s, what are the activity and the fraction of nuclei that have
decayed after 59 yr (t1/2 of 90Sr = 29 yr).

PLAN: The fraction of nuclei that have decayed is the change in the number
of nuclei, expressed as a fraction of the starting number. The activity
of the sample (A) is proportional to the number of nuclei (N). We are
given the A0 and can find At from the integrated form of the first-order
rate equation.
2 0.693
SOLUTION: t1/2 = ln so k= = 0.024 yr -1
N0 k 29 yr
A0
ln = ln = kt ln At = -kt + ln A0 (1.2 x1012 - 2.9 x 1011)
Nt At Fraction
=
ln At = -(0.024 yr -1)(59 yr) + ln(1.2 x 1012 d/s) decayed (1.2 x 1012)

ln At = 26.4 At = 2.9 x 1011 d/s Fraction

= 0.76
decayed

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 Sample Problem 23.5 Applying Radiocarbon Dating

PROBLEM: The charred bones of a sloth in a cave in Chile represent the earliest
evidence of human presence in the southern tip of South America. A
sample of the bone has a specific activity of 5.22 disintegrations per
minute per gram of carbon (d/min•g). If the 12C/14C ratio for living
organisms results in a specific activity of 15.3 d/min•g, how old are
the bones (t1/2 of 14C = 5730 yr)?
PLAN: Calculate the rate constant using the given half-life. Then use the
first-order rate equation to find the age of the bones.
SOLUTION:
ln 2 0.693
k= = = 1.21 x 10-4 yr -1
t1/2 5730 yr
1 A0 1 15.3
t= ln = ln = 8.89 x 103 yr
k At 1.21 x 10 yr
-4 -1
5.22
The bones are about 8900 years old.

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 Figure 23.5 Schematic of a linear accelerator.

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 Figure 23.6 Schematic of a cyclotron accelerator.

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23-21
 Figure 23.7

Penetrating power of
radioactive emissions.

Nuclear changes
cause chemical
changes in
Penetrating power is surrounding matter
inversely related to the mass by excitation and
and charge of the emission. ionization.

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23-24
 Figure 23.8
The use of radioisotopes to image the
thyroid gland.

Figure 23.9
PET and brain activity.

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 Figure 23.10 The increased shelf life of irradiated food.

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 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy

The mass of the nucleus is less than

the combined masses of its nucleons.
E = mc2 The mass decrease that occurs when
nucleons are united into a nucleus is
E = mc2 called the mass defect.

E The mass defect (m) can be used to

m = 2
c calculate the nuclear binding
energy in MeV (mega-electron volts).

1 amu = 931.5 x 106 eV = 931.5 MeV

23-27
 Sample Problem 23.6 Calculating the Binding Energy per Nucleon

PROBLEM: Iron-56 is an extremely stable nuclide. Compute the binding

energy per nucleon for 56Fe and compare it with that for 12C (mass
of 56Fe atom = 55.934939 amu; mass of 1H atom = 1.007825
amu; mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu).
PLAN: Find the mass defect, m; multiply that by the MeV equivalent and
divide by the number of nucleons.
SOLUTION:
Mass Defect = [(26 x 1.007825 amu) + (30 x 1.008665 amu)] - 55.934939
m = 0.52846 amu

(0.52846 amu)(931.5 MeV/amu)

Binding energy = = 8.790 MeV/nucleon
56 nucleons

12
C has a binding energy of 7.680 MeV/nucleon, so 56Fe is more stable.

23-28
 Figure 23.11 The variation in binding energy per nucleon.

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 Figure 23.12 Induced fission of 235U.

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Figure 23.13 A chain reaction of 235U.

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 Figure 23.14 A light-water nuclear reactor.

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 Figure 23.15

The tokamak design for

magnetic containment of a
fusion plasma.

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