18CSC303J - DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
• Data
• Data is information (or) set of values that has been
gathered and translated for some purpose, usually
analysis.
• It can be any character, including text, numbers,
pictures, sound and video suitable for use with a
computer.
• Database
• A database is a collection of information that is
organized so that it can be easily accessed, managed
and updated.
File Processing System
• A File Processing System is a collection of data, files
and records.
• In initial days, these records were stored in the form
of files. (Papers and notepad etc..)
• Each fields of information separated by space, tab,
comma, semicolon or any other symbol.
• Before DBMS were introduced, organizations usually
stored information in such systems.
Disadvantages of FPS
• Data redundancy
• It is possible that the same information may be
duplicated in different files. This leads to data
redundancy. It results in memory wastage.
• Data inconsistency
• data may not be in consistent state.
• Difficulty in accessing data
• Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in
conventional file processing system.
Disadvantages of FPS
• Data Isolation
• Data are separated in various files.
• Different files may have different formats.
• These files may be stored in different folders or
different computers.
• So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to share
data among different applications.
• Integrity problems
• It refers to the accuracy and consistency of data
stored in a database.
• Data values stored in the database must satisfy
certain types of constraints.
Disadvantages of FPS
• Atomicity problems
• File system does not guarantee the atomicity.
• If there is any failure to insert, update or delete in
the file system, there is no mechanism to switch
back to the previous state.
• Concurrent-access anomalies
• Multiple users are allowed to access data
simultaneously for better performance and faster
response.
• In the file system, concurrent access leads to
incorrect data.
Disadvantages of FPS
• Security problems
• Not every user of the database system should be
able to access all the data.
Comparison
File Processing System DBMS
• File-based system • Database system
caused data redundancy. control data
The data may be redundancy. The data
duplicated in different appeared only once in
files the system.
• File –based system • In database system data
caused data always consistent.
inconsistency. The data Because data appeared
in different files may be only once.
different that cause data
inconsistency.
Comparison
File Processing System DBMS
• The data cannot be • In database data is
shared because data is easily shared because
distributed in different data is stored at one
files. place.
• File based system does • Database system
not provide consistency provides a different
constrains consistency constrains
to maintain data
integrity in the system
Comparison
File Processing System DBMS
• The cost of file • The cost of database
processing system is system is much more
less then database than a file processing
system. system.
• File based system does • Database system
not provide provides concurrency
concurrency facility. facility.
• File based system does • Database system
not provide data provides data atomicity
atomicity functionality. functionality
PURPOSE OF
DATABASE SYSTEMS
• In the early days, database applications were built on top of
file systems
• Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
• Data redundancy and inconsistency
• Multiple file formats, duplication of information in
different files
• Difficulty in accessing data
• Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
• Data isolation — multiple files and formats
• Integrity problems
• Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become
part of program code
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
PURPOSE OF
DATABASE SYSTEMS
• Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
• Atomicity of updates
• Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with
partial updates carried out
• E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
• Concurrent access by multiple users
• Concurrent accessed needed for performance
• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to
inconsistencies
• E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the
same time
• Security problems
• Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
Database Applications
• Banking: transactions
• Airlines: reservations, schedules
• Universities: registration, grades
• Sales: customers, products, purchases
• Online retailers: order tracking, customized
recommendations
• Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply
chain
• Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax
deductions
Elements of Database
• Tables

• Data Types - what types of

data will be stored inside each
and every table column when
creating a SQL table.

• Constraints - maintain
the data integrity during an
update/delete/insert into a
table.

• Indexes - an use to speed up

data retrieval.

• Procedures and Views

Elements of Database
• Databases can be classified according to types of
content and organizational approach
• Bibliographic - contains list of books with authors
and publishers
Elements of Database
• full-text - contains complete text of books, thesis,
journals, magazines, newspapers and other kind of
textual documents(BLOB) E.g. Libraries
• Numeric
• Multimedia - images, graphic objects,
drawings, sketches, audio and video(BLOB).
Types of Databases
• Centralized database - A centralized database is
a database that is located, stored, and maintained in a
single location.
• E.g. desktop or server CPU, or a mainframe computer.
Types of Databases
• Distributed database - set of databases stored on
multiple computers. The data on several computers
can be simultaneously accessed and modified using a
network. Each database server in the distributed
database is controlled by its local DBMS
Types of Databases
• Object-oriented programming database
• Operational database
• End-user database
• Commercial database
• Personal database
DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
• DBMS is a computer software that managing all
databases that are currently installed on a system
hard drive or network.
• MySQL Database
• Oracle Database
• Red Brick
• Microsoft SQL Server
• File Maker
Data Model
• Basic structure of a database is called data model.
• A data model is a set of tables, linked by relationships.
• Data models define how data is connected to each
other and how they are processed and stored inside
the system.
• The data models can be classified into four different
categories
• Relational Model
• Entity-Relationship Model
• Object-Based Data Model
• Semistructured Data Model
Relational Model
• Relational database
• All data must be stored in tables called relations
with rows and columns.
• Relations can be normalized(No Duplication).
• Relationship is maintained by storing a common
field.
Relational Model
E-R Model
• An entity relationship model, also called an entity-
relationship(ER) diagram, is a graphical
representation of entities and their relationships to
each other.
E-R Model
Object-Based Data
Model.
• Another method of representing real world objects.
• It considers each entity in the world as objects and
isolates it from each other.
• Object-oriented programming (especially in Java, C++,
or C#) has become the dominant software-
development methodology. Describe the state and
behavior of the object.
Object-Based Data
Model.
Semistructured
Data Model
• The XML Language is
widely used to
represent semi
structured data.
• Semistructured model
is a database
model where there is no
separation between
the data and the schema
SEMISTRUCTURED
DATA MODEL
Data Catalog
• The database catalog of a database instance consists
of metadata containing database object definitions
like base tables, synonyms, views and indexes.
Data Abstraction
• For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data
efficiently.
• Database systems are made-up of complex data
structures.
• To ease the user interaction with database, the
developers hide internal irrelevant details from users.
• This process of hiding irrelevant details from user is
called data abstraction. several levels of abstraction..
• View level
• Logical level
• Physical level
Data Abstraction –
VIEW OF DATA
Data Abstraction
• View level
• Highest level of data abstraction. This level
describes the user interaction with database
system.
• Example
• At view level, user just interact with system with the
help of GUI and enter the details at the screen, they
are not aware of how the data is stored and what
data is stored.
Data Abstraction
• Logical level
• This is the middle level of 3-level data abstraction
architecture. It describes what data is stored in
database.
• Example
• At the logical level these records can be described as
fields and attributes along with their data types. The
programmers generally work at this level because
they are aware of such things about database
systems.
Data Abstraction
• Physical level
• This is the lowest level of data abstraction. It
describes how data is actually stored in database.
You can get the complex data structure details at
this level.
• Example
• Let’s consider storing customer information in a
customer table. At physical level these records can
be described as blocks of storage (bytes, gigabytes,
terabytes etc.) in memory. These details are often
hidden from the programmers.
DBMS Architecture
DBMS Architecture
• 2-tier DBMS Architecture
• 2-tier DBMS architecture includes an Application
layer between the user and the DBMS, which is
responsible to communicate the user's request to the
DBMS and then send the response to the user from
the DBMS.
• An application interface known as ODBC(Open
Database Connectivity) provides an API that allow
client side program to call the DBMS.
• Client application – on which remote database users
work.
• Server application – on which the database system
runs.
DBMS Architecture
• 3-tier DBMS Architecture
• The objective of the three level architecture is to
separate each user's view of the database from the
Way the database is physically represented.
• In a 3-tier architecture, the client machine acts as a
front end application and does not contain any direct
database calls.
• Instead, the client end communicates with an
application server, usually through a forms
interface.
DBMS System
Structure
DBMS System
Structure
• A primary goal of a database system is to retrieve
information from database and store information into
the database.
• People who work with a database can be categorized
as database users or database administrators.
• Different types of user interfaces have been designed
for the different types of users.
• There are four different types of database-system
users can be classified.
DBMS System
Structure
• Naive users Any user who does not have any knowledge
about database. There task is to just use the developed
application and get the desired results.
• Application programmers are computer professionals
who write application programs. They can choose
many tools to develop user interfaces.
• Sophisticated users interact with the system without
writing programs. Instead, they form their requests
either using a database query language or by using
tools.
DBMS System
Structure
• DBA (Database Administrator)
• DBA can be a single person or it can be a group of
person.
• Database Administrator is responsible for
everything that is related to database.
• He makes the policies, strategies and provides
technical supports.
DBMS System
Structure
• Query Processor Components
• DML Compiler
• It translates DML statements into low level
instructions(Binary language) that query evaluation
engine understands.
• Embedded DML Pre-compiler
• It converts DML statements to normal procedure
calls. The Pre-compiler must interact with the DML
compiler to generate the appropriate code(host
language).
DBMS System
Structure
• DDL Interpreter
• It interprets the DDL statements and records them in
a set of tables containing meta data or data dictionary.
• Query Evaluation Engine
• It executes low-level instructions generated by the
DML compiler.
• Storage Manager Components
• They provide the interface between the disk storage
and query processor.
• Authorization and Integrity Manager
• It tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints
checks the authority of users to access data.
DBMS System
Structure
• Transaction Manager
• It ensures that the database remains in a consistent
state despite the system failures and that
concurrent transaction execution proceeds without
conflicting.
• File Manager
• It manages the allocation of space on disk storage.
• Buffer Manager
• It is responsible for fetching data from disk storage
into main memory and deciding what data to cache
in memory.
DBMS System
Structure
• Disk Storage
• Data Files
• It stores the database files(Binary format)
• Data Dictionary
• It stores meta data (data about data) about the structure
of the database.
• Indices
• Provide fast access to data items that hold particular
values.
• Statistical Data
• It stores statistical information about the data in the
database. This information is used by query processor to
select efficient ways to execute query.
E-R Model
• An entity relationship model, also called an entity-
relationship(ER) diagram, is a graphical
representation of entities and their relationships to
each other.
E-R Model
E-R Model
• Entity
• An entity can be a real-world object, either animate
or inanimate, that can be easily identifiable. For
example, in a school database, students, teachers,
classes, and courses offered can be considered as
entities.
• Attributes
• Entities are represented by means of their
properties, called attributes. All attributes have
values. For example, a student entity may have
name, class, and age as attributes.
E-R Model
• Entity Set is a collection or a group of
‘entities’ sharing exactly the ‘same set of
attributes’.
• All entities can be distinctly identified in
an entity set. This is because all the entities
have a different set of value for some set of
attributes.
• classify the entity set into two basic
categories Strong and Weak entity set.
E-R Model
E-R Model

• Strong Entity Set

• An entity set that has a primary key using
which, entities in the table can be uniquely
identified. This kind of entity set is termed as
a strong entity set. Strong entity set is also
known as a regular entity set.
• In an ER diagram, the strong entity set is
represented by the single rectangle.
E-R Model

Weak Entity Sets

• A weak entity set doesn’t have any primary
key which can identify each entity in a set
distinctly. But, for discriminating the entities in a
set, the weak entity set
is dependent on a particular strong entity
set.
• A weak entity is represented by a double
rectangle.
• The relation between one strong and one weak
entity is represented by a double diamond.
E-R Model
E-R Model
S.NO Strong Entity Weak Entity

1. Strong entity always has While weak entity has

primary key. partial discriminator key.

Strong entity is not Weak entity is depend on

2. dependent of any other strong entity.
entity.

Strong entity is Weak entity is

3. represented by single represented by double
rectangle. rectangle.

Two strong entity’s While the relation

relationship is between one strong and
4. represented by single one weak entity is
diamond. represented by double
diamond.

5. Strong entity have either While weak entity always

total participation or not. has total participation.
E-R Model
• Types of Attributes
• Simple Attribute
• Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot
be divided further.
• Attributes are the properties which define the entity
type. For example, Roll_No, Name, DOB, Age, Address,
Mobile_No are the attributes which defines entity type
Student. In ER diagram, attribute is represented by an
oval.
E-R Model
• Key Attribute
• The attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in
the entity set is called key attribute. For example,
Roll_No will be unique for each student. In ER
diagram, key attribute is represented by an oval
with underlying lines.
E-R Model
• Composite Attribute
• An attribute composed of many other attribute is
called as composite attribute. For example, Address
attribute of student Entity type consists of Street,
City, State, and Country. In ER diagram, composite
attribute is represented by an oval comprising of
ovals.
E-R Model
• Multivalued Attribute
• An attribute consisting more than one value for a
given entity. For example, Phone_No (can be more
than one for a given student). In ER diagram,
multivalued attribute is represented by double oval.
E-R Model
• Derived Attribute
• An attribute which can be derived from other
attributes of the entity type is known as derived
attribute. e.g.; Age (can be derived from DOB). In ER
diagram, derived attribute is represented by dashed
oval
E-R Model
• Entity-Set and Keys
• Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that
uniquely identifies an entity among entity set.
• For example, the roll_number of a student makes
him/her identifiable among students.
• Super Key
• A set of attributes (one or more) that collectively
identifies an entity in an entity set.
• Candidate Key
• A minimal super key is called a candidate key. An
entity set may have more than one candidate key.
E-R Model
• Primary Key
• A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen
by the database designer to uniquely identify the
entity set.
• Relationship
• The association among entities is called a
relationship.
• For example, an employee works_at a department, a
student enrolls in a course. Here, Works_at and
Enrolls are called relationships.
E-R Model
• Relationship Set
• A set of relationships of similar type is called a
relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too can
have attributes. These attributes are
called descriptive attributes.
• Degree of Relationship
• The number of participating entities in a
relationship defines the degree of the relationship.
• Binary = degree 2
• Ternary = degree 3
• n-ary = degree
E-R Model
• Mapping Cardinalities
• Cardinality defines the number of entities in one
entity set, which can be associated with the number of
entities of other set via relationship set.
• One-to-one
• One entity from entity set A can be associated with
at most one entity of entity set B and vice versa.
E-R Model
• One-to-many
• One entity from entity set A can be associated with
more than one entities of entity set B however an
entity from entity set B, can be associated with at
most one entity.
E-R Model
• Many-to-one
• More than one entities from entity set A can be
associated with at most one entity of entity set B,
however an entity from entity set B can be
associated with more than one entity from entity set
A.
E-R Model
• Many-to-many
• One entity from A can be associated with more than
one entity from B and vice versa.
ER MODEL
ER MODEL –UNIVERSITY
DATABASE
KEYS IN DBMS
• Keys play an important role in the relational
database.
• It is used to uniquely identify any record or row
of data from the table. It is also used to
establish and identify relationships between
tables.
• For example: In Student table, ID is used as a
key because it is unique for each student. In
PERSON table, passport_number,
license_number, SSN are keys since they are
unique for each person.
KEYS IN DBMS
TYPES OF KEYS:
KEYS IN DBMS
KEYS IN DBMS
Primary key
• It is the first key which is used to identify one
and only one instance of an entity uniquely. An
entity can contain multiple keys as we saw in
PERSON table. The key which is most suitable
from those lists become a primary key.
• In the EMPLOYEE table, ID can be primary key
since it is unique for each employee. In the
EMPLOYEE table, we can even select
License_Number and Passport_Number as
primary key since they are also unique.
• For each entity, selection of the primary key is
based on requirement and developers.
KEYS IN DBMS
KEYS IN DBMS
Candidate key
• A candidate key is an attribute or set of an
attribute which can uniquely identify a tuple.
• The remaining attributes except for primary
key are considered as a candidate key. The
candidate keys are as strong as the primary
key.
• For example: In the EMPLOYEE table, id is
best suited for the primary key. Rest of the
attributes like SSN, Passport_Number, and
License_Number, etc. are considered as a
candidate key.
KEYS IN DBMS
KEYS IN DBMS
Super Key
• Super key is a set of an attribute which can
uniquely identify a tuple. Super key is a superset
of a candidate key.
• For example: In the above EMPLOYEE table,
for(EMPLOEE_ID,
EMPLOYEE_NAME,PASSPORT_NUMBER,LICENSE_NU
MBER) the name of two employees can be the
same, but their EMPLYEE_ID, PASSPORT NUMBER,
LICENSE NUMBER can't be the same. Hence, this
combination can also be a key.
• The super key for employee table would be ,
(EMPLOYEE_ID, EMPLOYEE-NAME,
PASSPORT_NUMBER,LICENSE_NUMBER), etc.
KEYS IN DBMS
Foreign key
• Foreign keys are the column of the table which is
used to point to the primary key of another table.
• In a company, every employee works in a specific
department, and employee and department are two
different entities. So we can't store the information
of the department in the employee table. That's why
we link these two tables through the primary key of
one table.
• We add the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table,
Department_Id as a new attribute in the EMPLOYEE
table.
• Now in the EMPLOYEE table, Department_Id is the
foreign key, and both the tables are related.
KEYS IN DBMS
DATABASE
LANGUAGES
TWO TYPES:
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DDL:
DDL or Data Definition Language actually
consists of the SQL commands that can be
used to define the database schema.
It simply deals with descriptions of the
database schema and is used to create and
modify the structure of database objects in the
database.
Data Definition
Language (DDL)
• Specification notation for defining the database schema
• E.g.
create table account (
account-number char(10),
balance integer)
• DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data
dictionary
• Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
• database schema
• Data storage and definition language
• language in which the storage structure and access
methods used by the database system are specified
• Usually an extension of the data definition language
Data Manipulation
Language (DML)
• Language for accessing and manipulating the data
organized by the appropriate data model
• DML also known as query language
• Two classes of languages
• Procedural – user specifies what data is required
and how to get those data
• Nonprocedural – user specifies what data is
required without specifying how to get those data
• SQL is the most widely used query language
SQL
• SQL: widely used non-procedural language
• E.g. find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465
select customer.customer-name
from customer
where customer.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’
• E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with
customer-id 192-83-7465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’ and
depositor.account-number = account.account-
number
• Application programs generally access databases through one of
• Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
• Application program interface (e.g. ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database
SQL- STRUCTURED
QUERY LANGUAGE
• Structured Query Language(SQL) as we all
know is the database language by the use of
which we can perform certain operations on the
existing database and also we can use this
language to create a database. SQL uses
certain commands like Create, Drop, Insert etc.
to carry out the required tasks.
• These SQL commands are mainly categorized
into four categories as:
1.DDL – Data Definition Language
2.DQl – Data Query Language
3.DML – Data Manipulation Language
4.DCL – Data Control Language
DDL(Data Definition Language) : DDL or Data Definition
Language actually consists of the SQL commands that can
be used to define the database schema. It simply deals with
descriptions of the database schema and is used to create
and modify the structure of database table in the database.
Examples of DDL commands:
• CREATE – is used to create the database or its objects (like
table, index, function, views, store procedure and triggers).
• DROP – is used to delete table from the database.
• ALTER-is used to alter the structure of the database.
• TRUNCATE–is used to remove all records from a table,
including all spaces allocated for the records are removed.
• COMMENT –is used to add comments to the data dictionary.
• RENAME –is used to rename an table existing in the
database.
CREATE
CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME D
ATATYPES[,....]);

DROP
DROP TABLE TABLE NAME;

ALTER (ADD NEW COLUMN)

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name C
OLUMN-definition;
ALTER (MODIFY)
ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);

TRUNCATE:
TRUNCATE TABLE TABLE NAME;

RENAME:
RENAME OLD TABLE NAME TO NEW TABLE
NAME;
DQL (Data Query Language) :
• DML statements are used for performing
queries on the data within schema objects.
The purpose of DQL Command is to get some
schema relation based on the query passed
to it.
• Example of DQL:
• SELECT – is used to retrieve data from the a
database.
SELECT * FROM TABLE NAME;
DML(Data Manipulation Language) : The SQL
commands that deals with the manipulation of data
present in the database belong to DML or Data
Manipulation Language and this includes most of the
SQL statements.Examples of DML:
• INSERT – is used to insert data into a table.
• UPDATE – is used to update existing data within a table.
• DELETE – is used to delete records from a database table.
• Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update
operations.
• Call: It is used to call a structured query language .
• Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
• Lock Table: It controls concurrency.
INSERT:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

INSERT:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
• For example:
UPDATE:
UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= valu
e1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDI
TION]

DELETE:
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
DCL(Data Control Language) : DCL includes
commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which
mainly deals with the rights, permissions and
other controls of the database
system.Examples of DCL commands:
• GRANT-gives user’s access privileges to
database.
• REVOKE-withdraw user’s access privileges
given by using the GRANT command.
GRANT:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOM
E_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

REVOKE:
REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM
USER1, USER2;
TCL(transaction Control Language) : TCL
commands deals with the
transaction within the database.Examples of
TCL commands:
• COMMIT– commits (SAVE) a Transaction.
• ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of
any error occurs.
• SAVEPOINT–sets a savepoint within a
transaction. ie) It is used to roll the transaction back to a
certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
• SET TRANSACTION–specify characteristics
for the transaction.
COMMIT:
COMMIT;

ROLLBACK:
ROLLBACK;

SAVEPOINT:
SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Data
Independence
• Data independence can be explained using
the three-schema architecture.
• Data independence refers characteristic of
being able to modify the schema at one level
of the database system without altering the
schema at the next higher level.
There are two types of data independence:
1.Logical Data Independence
2. Physical Data Independence
Logical Data Independence
• Logical data independence refers characteristic
of being able to change the conceptual schema
without having to change the external schema.
• Logical data independence is used to separate
the external level from the conceptual view.
• If we do any changes in the conceptual view of
the data, then the user view of the data would
not be affected.
• Logical data independence occurs at the user
interface level.
Physical Data Independence
• Physical data independence can be defined as
the capacity to change the internal schema
without having to change the conceptual
schema.
• If we do any changes in the storage size of the
database system server, then the Conceptual
structure of the database will not be affected.
• Physical data independence is used to
separate conceptual levels from the internal
levels.
• Physical data independence occurs at the
logical interface level.