Chapter 11

These slides are mainly taken from the

following website with some
modifications.

Website:
https://sites.chemengr.ucsb.edu/~ceweb/faculty/seborg/teaching/slides.html

University of California, Santa Barbara

Department of Chemical Engineering
1
 Dynamic Behavior and Stability of
Closed-Loop Control Systems
• In this chapter we consider the dynamic behavior of
processes that are operated using feedback control.
Chapter 11

• This combination of the process, the feedback controller,

and the instrumentation is referred to as a feedback control
loop or a closed-loop system.

Block Diagram Representation

To illustrate the development of a block diagram, we return to a
previous example, the stirred-tank blending process considered in
earlier chapters.

2
Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Composition control system for a stirred-tank

blending process.
3
 Next, we develop a transfer function for each of the five elements
in the feedback control loop. For the sake of simplicity, flow rate
w1 is assumed to be constant, and the system is initially operating
at the nominal steady rate.

Process
Chapter 11

In section 4.3 the approximate dynamic model of a stirred-tank

blending system was developed:

 K1   K2 
X s  
  X 1 s   
  W2 s  (11-1)
 τs  1   τs  1 
where
Vρ w1 1 x
 , K1  , and K2  (11-2)
w w w

4
Chapter 11

Figure 11.2 Block diagram of the process.

5
 Composition Sensor-Transmitter (Analyzer)
We assume that the dynamic behavior of the composition sensor-
transmitter can be approximated by a first-order transfer function:
X m s  Km
 (11-3)
X s  τ m s  1
Chapter 11

Controller
Suppose that an electronic proportional plus integral controller is
used. From Chapter 8, the controller transfer function is
Ps   1 
K c  1   (11-4)
E s   τ s
I 

where Ps  and E(s) are the Laplace transforms of the controller
output pt  and the error signal e(t). Note that p and e are
electrical signals that have units of mA, while Kc is dimensionless.
The error signal is expressed as 6
 e t   xsp
 t   xm
 t  (11-5)

or after taking Laplace transforms,

E s   X sp
 s   X m s  (11-6)
Chapter 11

The symbol xsp t  denotes the internal set-point composition

expressed as an equivalent electrical current signal. This signal
 t  is related to the actual
is used internally by the controller. xsp
composition set point xsp t  by the composition sensor-
transmitter gain Km:
 t  K m xsp
xsp  t  (11-7)
Thus
X sp
 s 
K m (11-8)
 s 
X sp
7
Chapter 11

Figure 11.3 Block diagram for the composition sensor-

transmitter (analyzer).

8
 Current-to-Pressure (I/P) Transducer
Because transducers are usually designed to have linear
characteristics and negligible (fast) dynamics, we assume that the
transducer transfer function merely consists of a steady-state gain
KIP:
Pts 
Chapter 11

K IP (11-9)
Ps 
Control Valve
As discussed in Section 9.2, control valves are usually designed
so that the flow rate through the valve is a nearly linear function
of the signal to the valve actuator. Therefore, a first-order transfer
function usually provides an adequate model for operation of an
installed valve in the vicinity of a nominal steady state. Thus, we
assume that the control valve can be modeled as
W2 s  K
 v (11-10)
Pts  τv s  1 9
 Figure 11.5 Block diagram for the I/P transducer.
Chapter 11

Figure 11.6 Block diagram for the control valve.

10
Chapter 11

Figure 11.7 Block diagram for the entire blending process

composition control system.

11
 Closed-Loop Transfer Functions
The block diagrams considered so far have been specifically
developed for the stirred-tank blending system. The more general
block diagram in Fig. 11.8 contains the standard notation:
Chapter 11

Y = controlled variable
U = manipulated variable
D = disturbance variable (also referred to as load
variable)
P = controller output
E = error signal
Ym = measured value of Y
Ysp = set point
Ysp  internal set point (used by the controller)
12
Chapter 11

Figure 11.8 Standard block diagram of a feedback

control system.

13
 Yu = change in Y due to U
Yd = change in Y due to D
Gc = controller transfer function
Gv = transfer function for final control element
Chapter 11

(including KIP, if required)

Gp = process transfer function
Gd = disturbance transfer function
Gm = transfer function for measuring element and
transmitter
Km = steady-state gain for Gm

14
 Block Diagram Reduction
In deriving closed-loop transfer functions, it is often convenient to
combine several blocks into a single block. For example, consider
the three blocks in series in Fig. 11.10. The block diagram
indicates the following relations:
Chapter 11

X1 G1U
X 2 G2 X1 (11-11)
X 3 G3 X 2
By successive substitution,
X 3 G3G2G1U (11-12)
or
X 3 GU (11-13)

where G G3G2G1.
15
 Figure 11.10 Three blocks in series.
Chapter 11

Figure 11.11 Equivalent block diagram.

16
 Set-Point Changes
Next we derive the closed-loop transfer function for set-point
changes. The closed-loop system behavior for set-point changes is
also referred to as the servomechanism (servo) problem in the
control literature.
Chapter 11

Y Yd  Yu (11-14)
Yd Gd D 0 (because D 0) (11-15)
Yu G pU (11-16)

Combining gives
Y G pU (11-17)

17
 Figure 11.8 also indicates the following input/output relations for
the individual blocks:
U Gv P (11-18)
P Gc E (11-19)
E Ysp  Ym (11-20)
Chapter 11

Ysp K mYsp (11-21)

Ym GmY (11-22)

Combining the above equations gives

Y G p Gv P G pGvGc E (11-23)


G p GvGc Ysp  Ym  (11-24)

G p GvGc  K mYsp  GmY  (11-25)

18
 Rearranging gives the desired closed-loop transfer function,
Y K mGc Gv G p
 (11-26)
Ysp 1  Gc Gv G p Gm

Disturbance Changes
Chapter 11

Now consider the case of disturbance changes, which is also

referred to as the regulator problem since the process is to be
regulated at a constant set point. From Fig. 11.8,
Y Yd  Yu Gd D  G pU (11-27)

Substituting (11-18) through (11-22) gives


Y Gd D  G pU Gd D  G p GvGc K mYsp  GmY  (11-28)

19
 Because Ysp = 0 we can arrange (11-28) to give the closed-loop
transfer function for disturbance changes:
Y Gd
 (11-29)
D 1  GcGvG p Gm

A comparison of Eqs. 11-26 and 11-29 indicates that both

Chapter 11

closed-loop transfer functions have the same denominator,

1 + GcGvGpGm. The denominator is often written as 1 + GOL
where GOL is the open-loop transfer function, GOL Gc GvG p Gm .

At different points in the above derivations, we assumed that

D = 0 or Ysp = 0, that is, that one of the two inputs was constant.
But suppose that D ≠ 0 and Ysp ≠ 0, as would be the case if a
disturbance occurs during a set-point change. To analyze this
situation, we rearrange Eq. 11-28 and substitute the definition of
GOL to obtain
20
 Gd K mGc Gv G p
Y D Ysp (11-30)
1  GOL 1  GOL

Thus, the response to simultaneous disturbance variable and set-

point changes is merely the sum of the individual responses, as
Chapter 11

can be seen by comparing Eqs. 11-26, 11-29, and 11-30.

This result is a consequence of the Superposition Principle for
linear systems.

21
 General Expression for Feedback Control Systems
Closed-loop transfer functions for more complicated block
diagrams can be written in the general form:

Z f
Chapter 11

 (11-31)
Zi 1   e
where:
Z is the output variable or any internal variable within the
control loop
Zi is an input variable (e.g., Ysp or D)
 f = product of the transfer functions in the forward path from
Zi to Z
 e = product of every transfer function in the feedback loop

22
 Example 11.1
Find the closed-loop transfer function Y/Ysp for the complex
control system in Figure 11.12. Notice that this block diagram has
two feedback loops and two disturbance variables. This
configuration arises when the cascade control scheme of Chapter
Chapter 11

16 is employed.

Figure 11.12 Complex control system. 23

Chapter 11

Figure 11.13 Block diagram for reduced system.

24
Chapter 11

Figure 11.14 Final block diagrams for Example 11.1.

25
 Solution
Using the general rule in (11-31), we first reduce the inner loop to
a single block as shown in Fig. 11.13. To solve the servo problem,
set D1 = D2 = 0. Because Fig. 11.13 contains a single feedback
loop, use (11-31) to obtain Fig. 11.14a. The final block diagram is
Chapter 11

shown in Fig. 11.14b with Y/Ysp = Km1G5. Substitution for G4 and

G5 gives the desired closed-loop transfer function:
Y K m1Gc1Gc 2G1G2G3

Ysp 1  Gc 2G1Gm 2  Gc1G2G3Gm1Gc 2G1

Closed-Loop Responses of Simple

Control Systems
In this section we consider the dynamic behavior of several
elementary control problems for disturbance variable and set-
point changes. 26
 The transient responses can be determined in a straightforward
manner if the closed-loop transfer functions are available.

Consider the liquid-level control system shown in Fig. 11.15. The

liquid level is measured, and the level transmitter (LT) output is
sent to a feedback controller (LC) that controls liquid level by
Chapter 11

adjusting volumetric flow rate q2. A second inlet flow rate q1 is

the disturbance variable. Assume:

1. The liquid density  and the cross-sectional area of the tank A

are constant.
2. The flow-head relation is linear, q3 = h/R.
3. The level transmitter, I/P transducer, and control valve have
negligible dynamics.
4. An electronic controller with input and output in % is used (full
scale = 100%). 27
Chapter 11

Figure 11.15 Liquid-level control system.

28
 Derivation of the process and disturbance transfer functions
directly follows Example 4.4. Consider the unsteady-state mass
balance for the tank contents:
dh
ρA ρq1  ρq2  ρq3 (11-32)
dt
Chapter 11

Substituting the flow-head relation, q3 = h/R, and introducing

deviation variables gives
dh h
A q1  q2  (11-33)
dt R
Thus, we obtain the transfer functions

H s  Kp
G p s   (11-34)
Q2 s  τs  1

29
 H s  Kp
Gd s   (11-35)
Q1 s  τs  1
where Kp = R and τ = RA. Note that Gp(s) and Gd(s) are identical
because q1 and q2 are both inlet flow rates and thus have the same
Chapter 11

effect on h.
The level transmitter, I/P transducer, and control valve have
negligible dynamics (Fast acting). So,
Gm = Km (unit %/ft)
Gv = Kv, it includes both the I/P and control valve gain. Unit
(ft3/min/%)

30
 H s  Kp
G p s   (11-34)
Q2 s  τs  1
H s  Kp
Gd s   (11-35)
Q1 s  τs  1
Chapter 11

Gv = Kv, (it includes both the I/P and control valve gain)
Gm = Km

Figure 11.8 Standard block diagram of a feedback

control system.
31
Chapter 11

Figure 11.16 Block diagram for level control system.

32
Chapter 11

Proportional Control and Set-Point Changes

If a proportional controller is used, then Gc(s) = Kc. From Fig.
11.6 and the material in the previous section, it follows that the
closed-loop transfer function for set-point changes is given by

H s  K c K v K p K m / τs  1
 (11-36)
 s  1  K c K v K p K m / τs  1
H sp

33
 This relation can be rearranged in the standard form for a first-
order transfer function,
H s  K
 1 (11-37)
 s  τ1s  1
H sp
where:
Chapter 11

KOL
K1  (11-38)
1  KOL

τ
τ1  (11-39)
1  KOL

and the open-loop gain KOL is given by

KOL K c K v K p K m (11-40)

34
Chapter 11

Fig. Effect of different time constant (τ) on step response

35
Chapter 11

Fig. Effect of different gain on step response

36
 From Eq. 11-37 it follows that the closed-loop response to a unit
step change of magnitude M in set point is given by


ht  K1M 1  e  t / τ1  (11-41)

This response is shown in Fig. 11.17. Note that a steady-state

Chapter 11

error or offset exists because the new steady-state value is K1M

rather than the desired value of M. The offset is defined as
    h 
offset hsp (11-42)

For a step change of magnitude M in set point, hsp   M .

From (11-41), it is clear that h  K1M . Substituting these
values and (11-38) into (11-42) gives
M
offset M  K1M  (11-43)
1  KOL
Offset can be reduced when K1 tends to 1, which is possible if controller gain, K C
is increased as K1 depends on KC. See eq. 11-38 and 11-40 37
Chapter 11

Figure 11.17 Step response for proportional control (set-

point change).

38
Chapter 11

Figure 11.18 Set-point responses for Example 11.2.

39
 Proportional Control and Disturbance Changes
From Fig. 11.16 and Eq. 11-29 the closed-loop transfer function
for disturbance changes with proportional control is
H s  K p / τs  1
 (11-53)
Q1 s  1  KOL / τs  1
Chapter 11

Rearranging gives
H s  K2
 (11-54)
Q1 s  τ1s  1
where τ1 is defined in (11-39) and K2 is given by
Kp
K2  (11-55)
1  KOL
τ
τ1  (11-39)
1  KOL
40
 • A comparison of (11-54) and (11-37) indicates that both closed-
loop transfer functions are first-order and have the same time
constant.
• However, the steady-state gains, K1 and K2, are different.
• From Eq. 11-54 it follows that the closed-loop response to a
Chapter 11

step change in disturbance of magnitude M is given by


ht  K 2 M 1  e  t / τ1  (11-56)

The offset can be determined from Eq. 11-56. Now hsp   0

since we are considering disturbance changes and h  K 2 M
for a step change of magnitude M.
Thus,
K pM
offset 0  h   K 2 M  (11-57)
1  KOL
41
Chapter 11

Figure 11.19 Load responses for Example 11.3.

42
Chapter 11

Figure 11.18 Set-point responses for Example 11.2.

43
 PI Control and Disturbance Changes
For PI control, Gc s  K c 1 1/ τ I s  . The closed-loop transfer
function for disturbance changes can then be derived from Fig.
11.16:
H s  K p / τs  1
 (11-58)
Chapter 11

Q1 s  1  K OL 1 1/ τ I s  / τs  1

Clearing terms in the denominator gives

H s  K pτ I s
 (11-59)
Q1 s  τ I s τs  1  KOL τ I s

Further rearrangement allows the denominator to be placed in the

standard form for a second-order transfer function:
H s  K3 s
 2 2 (11-60)
Q1 s  τ3 s  2ζ 3 τ3 s  1
44
 where
K 3 τ I / K c K v K m (11-61)
1  1  KOL  τI
ζ3    (11-62)
2  KOL  τ
Chapter 11

τ3  ττ I / KOL (11-63)

For a unit step change in disturbance, Q1 s  1/ s , and (11-59)

becomes
K3
H s   2 2 (11-64)
τ3 s  2ζ 3 τ3 s  1

For 0  ζ 3  1 , the response is a damped oscillation that can be

described by
K3
h t  
 e ζ 3t / τ3 sin  1  ζ 32 t / τ3  (11-65)

 

τ 1 ζ2
3 3
45
 Chapter 11

46
 PI Control of an Integrating Process
Consider the liquid-level control system shown in Fig. 11.22. This
system differs from the previous example in two ways:
1. the exit line contains a pump and
Chapter 11

2. the manipulated variable is the exit flow rate rather than an

inlet flow rate.
In Section 5.3 we saw that a tank with a pump in the exit stream
can act as an integrator with respect to flow rate changes because
H s  1
G p s   (11-66)
Q3 s  As

H s  1
Gd s   (11-67)
Q1 s  As
47
Chapter 11

Figure 11.22 Liquid-level control system with pump in exit line.

48
 If the level transmitter and control valve in Eq. 11.22 have
negligible dynamics, the Gm(s) = Km and Gv(s) = Kv. For PI
control, Gc s  K c 1 1/ τ I s  . Substituting these expressions
into the closed-loop transfer function for disturbance changes
H s  Gd
 (11-68)
Q1 s  1  GcGv G p Gm
Chapter 11

and rearranging gives

H s  K4s
 2 2 (11-69)
Q1 s  τ 4 s  2ζ 4 τ 4 s  1
where
K 4  τ / K c K v K m (11-70)
τ 4  τ I / KOL (11-71)
ζ 4 0.5 KOL τ I (11-72)
And KOL = KcKvKpKm with Kp = - 1/A. 49
Chapter 11 Stability of Closed-Loop Control Systems

50
 Stability of Closed-Loop Control Systems
Example 11.4
Consider the feedback control system shown in Fig. 11.8 with
the following transfer functions:
Chapter 11

1
Gc K c Gv  (11-73)
2s 1
1 1
G p Gd  Gm  (11-74)
5s  1 s 1

Show that the closed-loop system produces unstable responses if

controller gain Kc is too large.

51
Chapter 11

Figure 11.23. Effect of controller gains on closed-loop

response to a unit step change in set point (example 11.1).

52
 Stability
• Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control.
Thus, they are said to be open-loop stable or self-regulating.
• An open-loop stable process will return to the original steady
state after a transient disturbance (one that is not sustained)
Chapter 11

occurs.
• By contrast there are a few processes, such as exothermic
chemical reactors, that can be open-loop unstable.

Definition of Stability. An unconstrained linear system is

said to be stable if the output response is bounded for all
bounded inputs. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

53
 Chapter 11

54
 Unstable response

For an actual physical system, the amplitude will increase until a

physical limit is reached or an equipment failure occurs. Because
the final control element usually has saturation limits, the
Chapter 11

unstable response will manifest itself as a sustained oscillation

with a constant amplitude instead of a continually increasing
amplitude.

55
 Characteristic Equation
As a starting point for the stability analysis, consider the block
diagram in Fig. 11.8. Using block diagram algebra that was
developed earlier in this chapter, we obtain
K mGcGvG p Gd
Chapter 11

Y Ysp  D (11-80)
1  GOL 1  GOL

where GOL is the open-loop transfer function,

GOL = GcGvGpGm. For the moment consider set-point changes
only, in which case Eq. 11-80 reduces to the closed-loop
transfer function,
Y K mGcGvG p
 (11-81)
Ysp 1  GOL

56
 Comparing Eqs. 11-81 and 11-82 indicates that the poles are also
the roots of the following equation, which is referred to as the
characteristic equation of the closed-loop system:
1  GOL 0 (11-83)

General Stability Criterion. The feedback control system in Fig.

Chapter 11

11.8 is stable if and only if all roots of the characteristic

equation are negative or have negative real parts. Otherwise,
the system is unstable.

Example 11.8
Consider a process, Gp = 0.2/-s + 1), and thus is open-loop
unstable. If Gv = Gm = 1, determine whether a proportional
controller can stabilize the closed-loop system.

57
 Figure 11.25
Stability regions
Chapter 11

in the complex
plane for roots
of the charact-
eristic equation.

58
 Figure 11.26
Contributions of
Chapter 11

characteristic
equation roots to
closed-loop
response.

59
 Solution
The characteristic equation for this system is
s  0.2 K c  1 0 (11-92)

Which has the single root, s = -1 + 0.2Kc. Thus, the stability

Chapter 11

requirement is that Kc < 5. This example illustrates the important

fact that feedback control can be used to stabilize a process that
is not stable without control.

Routh Stability Criterion

The Routh stability criterion is based on a characteristic equation
that has the form

an s n  an 1s n  1    a1s  a0 0 (11-93)

60
 Routh array:
Row
1 an an-2 an-4 
2 an-1 an-3 an-5 
3 b1 b2 b3 
Chapter 11


4 c1 c2
 

n+1 z1
where:
an 1an 2  an an 3
b1  (11-94)
an 1
an 1an 4  an an 5
b2  (11-95)
an 1

61
 and:
b1an 3  an 1b2
c1  (11-96)
b1
Chapter 11

b1an 5  an 1b3

c2  (11-97)
b1


Routh Stability Criterion:

A necessary and sufficient condition for all roots of the
characteristic equation in Eq. 11-93 to have negative real parts
is that all of the elements in the left column of the Routh array
are positive.

62
 Example 11.9
Determine the stability of a system that has the characteristic
equation
s 4  5s 3  3s 2  1 0 (11-98)
Chapter 11

Solution
Because the s term is missing, its coefficient is zero. Thus,
the system is unstable. Recall that a necessary condition for
stability is that all of the coefficients in the characteristic
equation must be positive.

63
 Example 11.10
Find the values of controller gain Kc that make the feedback
control system of Eq. 11.4 stable.

Solution
Chapter 11

From Eq. 11-76, the characteristic equation is

10 s 3  17 s 2  8s  1  K c 0 (11-99)

All coefficients are positive provided that 1 + Kc > 0 or Kc < -1.

The Routh array is
10 8
17 1 + Kc
b1 b2
c1
64
 To have a stable system, each element in the left column of the
Routh array must be positive. Element b1 will be positive if
Kc < 7.41/0.588 = 12.6. Similarly, c1 will be positive if Kc > -1.
Thus, we conclude that the system will be stable if
 1  K c  12.6 (11-100)
Chapter 11

Direct Substitution Method

• The imaginary axis divides the complex plane into stable and
unstable regions for the roots of characteristic equation, as
indicated in Fig. 11.26.
• On the imaginary axis, the real part of s is zero, and thus we
can write s=j. Substituting s=j into the characteristic
equation allows us to find a stability limit such as the maximum
value of Kc.

• As the gain Kc is increased, the roots of the characteristic

equation cross the imaginary axis when Kc = Kcm. 65
 Example 11.12
Use the direct substitution method to determine Kcm for the system
with the characteristic equation given by Eq. 11-99.
Solution
Chapter 11

Substitute s  jω and Kc = Kcm into Eq. 11-99:

 10 jω3  17ω2  8 jω  1  K cm 0
or (11-105)
1  K cm  17ω 
2
 j 8ω  
10ω3
0

66
 Equation 11-105 is satisfied if both the real and imaginary parts
are identically zero:

1  K cm  17ω2 0 (11-106a)


8ω  10ω3 ω 8  10ω2 0  (11-106b)
Chapter 11

Therefore,
ω2 0.8  ω 0.894 (11-107)

and from (11-106a),

K cm 12.6

67
 Root Locus Diagrams
Example 11.13
Consider a feedback control system that has the open-loop
transfer function,
Chapter 11

4Kc
GOL s   (11-108)
s  1s  2 s  3
Plot the root locus diagram for 0 K c 20.

Solution
The characteristic equation is 1 + GOL = 0 or

s  1s  2 s  3  4 K c 0 (11-109)

68
 • The root locus diagram in Fig. 11.27 shows how the three roots
of this characteristic equation vary with Kc.

• When Kc = 0, the roots are merely the poles of the open-loop

transfer function, -1, -2, and -3.
Chapter 11

69
Chapter 11

Figure 11.27 Root locus diagram for third-order system. X

denotes an open-loop pole. Dots denote locations of the closed-
loop poles for different values of Kc. Arrows indicate change of
pole locations as Kc increases. 70
 The following figure suggest that for the values of
KC > -1 the closed-system is stable
Chapter 11

Fig. Root locus of example 11.7

71
 The following figure suggest that for the values of
KC < 12.6 the closed-system is stable
Chapter 11

Fig. Root locus of example 11.9

72
 Figure 11.29. Flowchart
Chapter 11

for performing a stability

analysis.

73