MODULE 2

Dr. Koninika Mukherjee

 Variables

A variable, as the name implies, is something that varies.

Webster says that a variable is “a thing that is changeable” or “a quantity that
may have a number of different values.” A variable is something that has at least
two values.
It is also important that the values of the variable be observable.
 Definition
◦ According to D’Amato (1970) variables may be defined as those attributes
of objects, events, things and beings, which can be measured.
◦ According to Postman and Egan (1949) a variable is a characteristic or
attribute that can take on several values.
For example, number of items that an individual solves on a particular test,
the speed with which we respond to a signal, IQ, sex, level of anxiety, and
different degree of illumination are the examples of variables that are
commonly employed in psychological research.
 Operational Definitions
The variables are tangible: duration, frequency, rate, or intensity of
bar presses; items checked on a questionnaire; murders committed;
books written. The theoretical concept is intangible: hunger,
motivation, anxiety. The variables are related to the theoretical
concepts by means of the operational definitions used to measure
the concepts.
 TYPES OF
VARIABLES
 Stimulus, Organism and Response
Variables
Psychologists are interested in studying the behavior or causes of behavior as
variables. Many psychologists have adopted a theoretical viewpoint, or model
called the S-O-R model to explain all behaviour. The symbols S, O, and R
represent different categories of variables.
A stimulus variable (S) is some form of energy in the environment, such as light,
to which the organism is sensitive.
O is the symbol for organism variables that is the changeable physiological and
psychological characteristics of the organisms being observed. Examples of such
variables are anxiety level, age and heart rate etc.
Finally, R is the symbol for response variables, which refer to some behaviour or
action of the organism like pressing a lever, and reaction to any stimulus.
 Stimulus, Organism and
Response Variables
Suppose that an experiment is conducted in which a rat is placed on a metal grid
floor, the grid is electrified, and the length of time it takes the rat to jump from
the grid to a platform is measured.
Using the S-O-R model, the electrical shock would be called a stimulus variable.
The intensity of shock would be the value of the variable. The particular state of
the organisms would be measured by the organismic variables. For example, the
skin resistant of the rat at the time of shock was introduced would be an
organismic variables. A response variable would be the latency (i.e. the elapsed
time between the onsets of the shock and when the rat reaches the platform).
 Independent Variables
◦An independent variable is that factor manipulated or selected by the
experimenter in his attempt to ascertain its relationship to an
observed phenomenon.
◦Based upon the mode of manipulation, some experts have tried to
divide the independent variable into ‘Type E’ independent variable
and ‘Type S’ independent variable (D’Amato, 1970).
◦Type E independent variable is one of which is directly or
experimentally manipulated by the experimenter and type S
independent variable is one which is manipulated through the process
of selection only.
 Dependent Variables

A dependent variable is the factor that appears,

disappears, or varies as the experimenter introduces,
removes or varies the independent variable
(Townsend,1953).
 Extraneous Variables
Any and all other variables that may ‘mask’ the relationship
between independent variable and dependent variable are known
as extraneous variables.
Extraneous variables may directly affect the dependent variable
or may combine with the independent variable to produce an
affect. Therefore, extraneous variables must be controlled so that
the experimenter can determine whether the dependent variable
changes in relation to variation in the independent variable.
 Types of Extraneous Variables
In experimental studies, they belong to three major types:
◦ Organismic variables: The subject related variables include age, sex,
intelligence, personality etc. are organismic variables.
◦ Situational variables: The situational variables include environmental
variables operating in the experimental setting (e.g. noise, temperature,
humidity) and variables related to the experimental task.
◦ Sequential variables: The sequence related variables deal with sequence
effects. They arise when participants in experiments are required to be tested in
several conditions. Exposure to many conditions may result in adaptation,
fatigue or practice effects which, if allowed to operate, may make the results
difficult to interpret.
 Confounding Variables

Confounding variable is one that varies with the independent

variable. While doing a study if we are not careful then two
variables may get combined so that the effect of one cannot be
separated from the effect of other. This is known as
confounding.
 Active and Attribute Variables

◦Any variable that can be manipulated is called an active variable.

Examples of active variables are reward, punishment, methods of
teaching, creating anxiety through instructions and so on.
◦Attribute variable is that variable which is not manipulated but
measured by the experimenter. Intelligence, Aptitudes, sex, socio
economic status, education, and need for achievement are the
example of attributes variables.
 Types of Quantitative Variables
◦ A continuous variable is one which is capable of being measured in any
arbitrary degree of fineness or exactness. Age, height, intelligence, reaction
time, etc., are some of the examples of a continuous variable. The age of the
person can be measured in years, month and days.
◦ The discrete variables are those variables which are not capable of being
measured in any arbitrary degree of fineness or exactness because the variables
contain a clear gap. For example, the number of members in a family, no. of
females in particular group, no of books in library and so on constitutes the
examples of a discrete variable.
 Categorical Variables
Gender, race, religion are the example of categorical variables.
Categorical variables can be of the following types:
Dichotomous: When a variable can have only two categories as in
yes/no, good/bad and rich/poor, it is known as dichotomous variables.
Polytomous: When variables can be divided into more than two
categories, for example: religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu); political
parties (Labor, Liberal, Democrat); and attitudes (strongly favorable,
favorable, uncertain, unfavorable, strongly unfavorable), it s called a
polytomous variable.
 SOURCES FOR SELECTING A
RESEARCH
PROBLEM
◦Theory
◦Experience
◦Discussion
◦Dissatisfaction
◦Literature
Problem Statement

◦clarify exactly what is to be determined or solved.

◦the researcher should see that it is neither stated in so general terms as to
become vague, nor specified so narrowly as to become insignificant and
trivial.
◦It should neither involve philosophical issue, nor values, or judgmental
questions that cannot be answered by scientific investigation.
 Research Questions
◦Research questions must explain the relationship among
variables.
◦Research questions should not be vague.
◦Research questions should be researchable and feasible.
◦It must not involve any philosophical issue or value
judgement.
◦It should be observed that the problem's solution fills the
gap in the existing knowledge or helps resolve some of the
inconsistencies or the interpretation of known facts.
Examples
 Hyposthesis
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s)
predict will be the outcome of the study. It is stated at the start of the study.
This usually involves proposing a possible relationship between two variables: the independent
variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependent variable (what the research measures).
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is
a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.
For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test
performance might have a hypothesis that states, "This study is designed to assess the
hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not
sleep-deprived."
 Characteristics of good
hypothesis
 Based on sound reasoning.
 Precise and clearly states the relationship between the defined
variables.
 Capable of being tested.
 Defines variables in measurable terms.
 Consistent with most known facts.
 Test within a reasonable amount of time.
 Selection of research design.
 Providing the framework in which the results have to be given.
 TYPES OF
HYPOTHESES
 Non-directional Hypothesis
• A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts that
the independent variable will have an effect on the
dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is
not specified. It just states that there will be a
difference.

• E.g., there will be a difference in how many numbers

are correctly recalled by children and adults.
 Directional Hypothesis
• A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the
nature of the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable. It predicts in which direction the
change will take place. (i.e. greater, smaller, less,
more)

• E.g., adults will correctly recall more words than

children.
 Null Hypothesis
• The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship
between the two variables being studied (one variable
does not affect the other). There will be no changes in
the dependent variable due to the manipulation of the
independent variable.

• It states results are due to chance and are not

significant in terms of supporting the idea being
investigated.
Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
 Represented By Ho  Denoted by H1
 It assumes that there is no  When we reject the null hypothesis
significant difference in the sample
the conclusion which we accept is
and population in a specific matter
called the alternative hypothesis.
under consideration.
 Ho asserts that the difference is
accidental and unimportant
arising out of sampling
variations.
 Type I and II errors

Condition Decision
Accept H0 Reject Ho
Ho is true Correct decision Incorrect
decision
(Type I error)
Ho is false Incorrect Correct decision
decision
(Type II error)

𝛼= Type I error
𝛽 = Type II error
Stevens (1946) classified variables into four levels.
These are referred to as level of measurement, or levels of
1. Nominal
data.
2. Ordinal
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
Ratio Absolute zero

Interval Distance is meaningful

Attributes can be ordered

Ordinal
Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest
Nominal scale
The nominal type scale, sometimes
also called the qualitative type that
differentiates between items or
subjects only on the basis their
names or categories or qualities.

Examples include gender,

nationality, language,
style, and biological
species.
Nominal scale

A nominal scale
represents lower
level of
measurement.

Such scales
classifies persons
or objects in to two
or more categories.
 Nominal scale

Assignment of • Example: Country of Origin

numbers to the
categories has
no mathematical • 1 = United States 3 = Canada
meaning like • 2 = Mexico 4 = Other

However, in this case, it is important to keep in

mind that the numbers do not have intrinsic
meaning
 Ordinal scale

An ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but

also ranks them in terms of the degree to which
they possess a characteristics of interest. An
ordinal scale indicates relative position.

Ordinal scale can determine whether an object has

more or less of a characteristic than some other
object. The exact measurement is not available like
student A is taller than student B but their actual
heights are not available.

It permits the researcher to rank or order

the respondents or their responses
 Ordinal scale

The result of a horse Common

race, which says only example of
Example of an which horses arrived ordinal scale
first, second, or third include quality
ordinal scale: but include no ranking,
information about race socioeconomics
times. classes, and
occupational
status.
Interval scales Zero point on the
indicate order and interval scale is
also the distance arbitrary zero, it
in the order. does not means the
complete absence
of anything
 interval scale
The difference in
temperature between 20
degrees F and 25
degrees F is the same
as the difference
between 76 degrees F
Examples and 81 degrees F

Temperatur
e Scale in
Fahrenheit.
 interval scale

Interval scales allow

comparisons of the
differences of
magnitude (e.g. of
attitudes) but do not
allow determinations
of the actual strength
of the magnitude.
 Ratio scale

This scale has a unique or

This is the highest level of
fixed beginning or true zero
measurement and has the
point. (complete absence
properties of other three
of the phenomenon being
levels.
measured)
 Ratio scale

Weight (in grams) is

heart beats per
also a ratio variable.
minute has a very
Again, the zero value
For example natural zero point.
is meaningful, zero
Zero means no heart grams means the
beats. absence of weight.