SOCIAL

JUSTICE
By: Jovina A. Novabos
Justin Ainbert D. Balbin
Social justice refers to the overall equality and
fairness in:
i. The treatment of fellow human beings
regardless of race, sex, gender, social class,
age, dis/ability, religion, political affiliation,
creed, or other characteristic of background or
group membership;
ii. The access and allocation of community
resources and goods such as basic needs (food,
income, shelter, etc.); and
iii. The giving of opportunity structures and life
chances so that people can live meaningful lives
and achieve well-being. SOCIAL
JUSTICE
 UNJUST FORMS
POVERTY PREDATORY
OF SOCIAL
CAPITALISM
INEQUALITIES

OCCUPATIONAL CLIMATE
INJUSTICE CHANGE
INJUSTICE
Poverty Four major approaches in
understanding poverty,
namely:
The United Nations
(2001) defines
poverty as “a human
condition i. Subsistence minimum
characterized by the
sustained or chronic ii.Capability
deprivation of the
resources, iii.Social exclusion; and
capabilities, choices,
security and power iv.Multidimensional
necessary for the
enjoyment of an
adequate standard of
living and other civil,
cultural, economic,
 Subsistence
Minimum
Poverty here is seen as either as
income-poverty or consumption-
poverty. Both refer to a shortfall in
income and consumption from some
poverty line or subsistence minimum,
which results to a lack of or low
quality access to social services (e.g.,
health, education, livelihood) and
acquisition of material assets such as
food, shelter, clothing, furniture,
personal means of transport, and the
like.
 Capability
Poverty here is seen as the absence or inadequate
realization of certain basic freedoms, or as what
Amartya Sen (1989) coined as “capability
deprivation.” These basic freedoms refer to
political freedom (right to participate in
community life and enjoy democracy), economic
freedom (right to participate in trade and
production to create abundance), and social
freedom (right to access social services and
products so people can enjoy a decent standard of
living). From this viewpoint, people living in
poverty experience capability deprivation (e.g.,
illiteracy, ill health, and lack of command over
resources), that restricts their choices. They also
experience social and political oppressions that
restrict individual or collective participation in
community life, or the exercise of autonomy in
making decisions about one’s own life.
 Social exclusion
In this perspective, poverty is seen as
the denial of human rights and as the
condition in which various
international human rights
conventions are not fulfilled and
states are not held accountable in
safeguarding the rights of their
citizens (UNRISD 2010). Denial of
human rights is seen in the processes
of marginalization and deprivation,
which are allowed to arise and
persist.
 Multidimensional
Poverty, in this viewpoint, is seen to
be made up of several factors that
constitute poor people’s experience
of deprivation such as poor health
(indicated by poor nutrition and high
mortality rate), lack of education
(indicated by illiteracy, low years of
schooling, and low school
enrollment); and inadequate living
standard (such as lack of income,
disempowerment, poor quality of
work, and threats from violence)
(Chambers 2006; UNRISD 2010).
Cultural dimension of pover
Joaquin (1966) argues that it is the Filipino’s
heritage of smallness-thinking and acting small-
that prevents Filipinos from exploring and carrying
out big, ambitious projects. Fallows (1987) seems
to support this claim, as he observed that Filipinos
have a damaged culture, always finding excuses to
explain their lot without really doing anything to
make a change. Jose (2005) further elucidates this
matter as he mourned how Filipinos have
forgotten to emulate their local heroes and focus
instead on public figures who do nothing to uplift
Filipino pride. Rafael (2000), on the other hand,
argues that it has become difficult for Filipinos to
find their way forward as they have embraced
colonizing themselves, such that they think and
act more American than the Americans. All of
these suggest that the Filipino culture plays a
significant part on why many Filipinos remain
poor.
Economic dimension of pove
The Philippines is characterized by low economic growth
due to its failure to develop the agricultural sector (Habito
and Briones 2005; ADB 2007, 2009), its low industrial base
(ADB 2007), and to meet the oversupply of the service
sector-that is, producing more graduates than jobs available
(ADB 2007, 2009). Moreover, the Philippines suffers from the
surmounting debt that was accumulated during Ferdinand
Marcos’s regime, which forced the Philippines to experience
a tight fiscal situation. In this situation, budgets for social
development (education, health, social services) are cut in
favor of debt servicing or payment of debts (ADB 2007; Bird
and Hill 2008). Additionally, the country suffers from
inadequate economic infrastructure, coupled with
cumbersome business procedures, red tape, and corruption
(ADB 2007). These conditions lead to an increased cost in
doing business in the country, which detracts local and
foreign investors (ADB 2007; Clarete 2005). Finally, the
country suffers from an inability to address information and
learning externalities and from failures in technological
innovation and coordination. These problems lead to a small
and narrow industrial base that explains the enduringly slow
and meager economic growth in the country (ADB 2007; Bird
and Hill 2008).
 Political dimension of
poverty
The Philippines is characterized by
weak social institutions due to poor
governance (ADB 2007), a market
that is hijacked by a red-taped
government (Clarete 2005), and an
infested crony or autocratic
monopoly of political dynastic
families (Fallows 1987). The civil
society, although ardently strong,
faces issues on transparency,
legitimacy, performance,
sustainability, and relevance (Songco
2007).
 Social dimension of
poverty
The Philippines is characterized by high
inequality. For instance, education is plagued
by corruption (Bautista, Bernardo, and
Ocampo 2009), which boils down to the
unfortunate reality that access to education
becomes a privilege rather than a right (Lam
2005). Health services become inaccessible
to the majority because of the high cost of
health care (ADB 2007), and government
budget allocation for social services are
inadequate or are slashed down yearly due
to a tight fiscal policy in favor of debt
servicing (ADB 2009; Bird and Hill 2008). This
leaves many Filipinos vulnerable to any kind
of shocks, which have the potential to
aggravate the plight of the poor and the
 Environmental dimension of
poverty
The Philippines is prone to disasters and
vulnerable to climate change, and both
circumstances have proven capable of wiping
out or undoing any economic gains that the
country made (ADB 2007; UN 2009). In
addition, pollution remains a threat to urban
and rural centers as it continues to wreak
havoc to the natural environment and
increase the vulnerability of people (Briones
2005). The search for renewable sources of
energy also continues to be elusive because
the country’s main source of energy is still
dependent on oil, whose prices are ever
increasing and volatile (Remo 2011). Such
environmental conditions keep many people
in the shackles of poverty and threaten those
who are not to fall into poverty.
 Unjust Forms of Social Inequalities

Unjust forms of social inequalities

refer to the denial of human
rights of individuals based on the
perception of their inferiority by
those with more power, wealth,
and prestige (Dilworth-Anderson,
Pierre, and Hilliard 2012; Levy
and Sidel 2009).
 Classism
Classism refers to the systematic oppression of
subordinated groups to the advantage of dominant
groups and is based on social class. Systematic
oppression here includes individual attitudes,
behaviors, policies, and practices that are set up to
benefit those in the upperclass (rich) at the expense
of those in the lower class (poor). Classism often
results in the widening gap between the rich and the
poor, with the former enjoying more privileges in life,
while the latter wallowing in grinding poverty. An
obvious manifestation of classism is seeing the poor
as unclean, uneducated, and uncivilized. More often
than not, the poor people are also solely blamed for
remaining poor without realizing how society is
unjustly structured, which exploits them and keeps
them poor.
 Racism
Racism refers to the systematic oppression based on
race or ethnicity. Systematic oppression here
includes a host of practices, beliefs, and social
relations that turn humans into stereotyped objects,
which reproduce a racial stratification or racially
structured society. Such stratification is based on the
belief that race is the sole determinant of human
traits and capabilities. Because of this belief, other
races are seen to be inherently inferior to others in
terms of intellect, social relations, and culture.
Racism is often expressed when we joke around or
laugh at people whose skin is of darker color, or
when we associate those whiter or fairer complexion
as more beautiful or more intelligent than those with
darker complexion.
 Sexism
Sexism is the belief and practice that
one’s sex is innately superior to the
other. Sexism views males as more
superior than females. Women are
usually seen as physically weak,
emotionally unstable, and intellectually
inferior. This leads to unequal
distribution of wealth, power, and
prestige in which men gain the upper
hand at the expense of women. Sexism is
often manifested in cases of sexual
harassment, when women are not
allowed to choose a partner they want to
marry, or when they are seen as fragile
 Gender bias
Gender bias refers to the systematic
oppression of any sex-and intersex and
transgender people because of
nonconformity to the expected gender
stereotypes attached to one’s sex. This
means that if a man or woman does not
conform to masculine or feminine
expectations, respectively, then they are
denied equal treatment in terms of
dignity and rights. Those who experience
gender bias are usually the lesbians,
gays, bisexuals, and transsexuals (LGBT).
 Ageism
Ageism pertains to prejudice and
discrimination based on differences in
age. Usually, the children and the elderly
are subordinated to the middle-aged,
who belong to the dominant age
category. In such a case, children are
considered as properties at the disposal
of adults, and are seen to exist only in
order to serve, honor, and obey the
adults. On the other hand, the elderly
are often seen as weak, obsolete, and
useless members of society who have
nothing more substantial to contribute.
 Disability bias
Disability bias refers to the unequal treatment and
systematic oppression of a group of persons based
on their physical or mental impairments or
challenges. Because of their inability to cope with the
rest, they are deemed useless. Those who experience
disability bias are persons with disabilities (PWDs),
including those with intellectual disabilities (e.g.,
Down syndrome and developmental delays), physical
disabilities (e.g., cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy,
spinal cord injury, epilepsy, spina bifida), sensory
disabilities (e.g., blindness, deafness, autism), and
mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar,
depression, bulimic, anorexic). Persons with
disabilities are often laughed at, barred from
entering school, and denied of employment.
 Ideological bias
Ideological bias refers to the intense
commitment to certain religious,
political, or philosophical ideas that
results in the oppressive dismissal of
other ideas. Such bias curtails other
people’s freedom of expression and
speech, especially when not aligned
to a group’s favored ideology.
Ideological bias is manifested when a
certain religious or political regime
imprisons, ostracizes, or tortures
people who express views contrary to
 Predatory Capitalism

Predatory capitalism refers to the

unregulated actions and strategies of
corporations to make profit at whatever
cause-that is, profit-making is prioritized
over public interest. In such case,
corporations become predators instead
of being protectors of the public. In
many developing countries, such as the
Philippines, the perpetrators of
predatory capitalism are oftentimes the
transnational corporations (TNCs) or
multinational corporations (MNCs).
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2013)
defines TNCs as “incorporated or unincorporated enterprises
comprising parent enterprises and their foreign affiliates.” A
parent enterprise is defined as “an enterprise that controls
assets of other entities in countries other than its home country,
usually by owning a certain equity capital stake.” Usually, TNCs
undertake foreign direct investment, own or control income
generating assets in more than one country, produce goods or
services outside its country of origin, and engage in international
production. The sales and volumes of the largest TNCs
sometimes even surpass the gross domestic products (GDPs) of
entire nations, especially those in developing countries.
Given the breadth and depth of economic power of TNCs, many of
the court cases filed against them often criticize their predatory
profit-making schemes, which are explained below (West’s
Encyclopedia of American Law 2008; Polychroniou 2014; Forum
ZFD and Commission on Higher Education- Regional Office XI
2013).

1. They always seek to minimize the payment of taxes by avoiding high tariffs,
but not always in honest way.

2. They always seek to eliminate or control their competition by acquiring

businesses or purchasing companies, which leads to the creation of huge
monopolies.

3. They always seek to reduce their labor costs by using foreign labor at a
cheaper price than they would in their home country. This often results to loss
of jobs in their home country.

4. They always seek to avoid all environmental restraints. During the process,
5. They are often tempted to sell dangerous or harmful products
and use cheap yet inappropriate and environmentally dangerous
technologies to the detriment of their laborers, consumers, and
surrounding local residents.

6. They are not loyal to all of the countries they operate in. They
are mainly concerned about the best for them at the expense of
the values and standards of their host country.

7. They exercise political influence in weak governments, such

that they use their power to convince some governments to
support their unethical profit-making practices.
 However, despite the problems that TNCs pose to their host
countries, developing countries welcome them and often turn a
blind eye to their unethical profit-making practices, in exchange
of the following benefits:

1. Transnational corporations provide opportunities for capital,

technology, employment, and access to the international market.

2. Transnational corporations generate large revenues, which the

government anticipates to get a share through the collection of
taxes.

3. The outcomes of the research and development activities of

the TNCs can be used in building domestic industries, thus,
contributing to the development of import substitution
industries.
 Occupational
Injustice
Occupational injustice occurs in situations when
people are exploited, barred, confined,
restricted, segregated, prohibited, undeveloped,
disrupted, and/or alienated from meaningful
occupations or have preferred occupations
imposed upon them, thereby limiting the
achievement of their optimum health, quality of
life, and life satisfaction (Hammell and Iwama
2012; Braveman and Bass-Haugen 2009;
Townsend and Wilcock 2004). People who are
vulnerable in experiencing occupational
injustices are usually ethnic minority groups,
excluded religious minorities, child laborers,
prisoners, persons with disabilities, refugees,
and/or women (Whiteford 2000).
Occupational alienation

It refers to “prolonged experiences

of disconnectedness, isolation,
lack of identity, and emptiness due
to lack of access to resources and
opportunity structures that could
enrich one’s life.” An example of
which is refugees who are confined
to labor in hazardous conditions,
doing forced tasks for little or no
wages (Townsend and Wilcock
2004).
Occupational apartheid

It refers to “the segregation of groups

of people through the restriction or
denial of access to dignified and
meaningful participation in
occupations of daily life on the basis
of race, color, disability, national
origin, age, gender, sexual
preference, religion, political beliefs,
status in society, or any other
characteristics” (Kronenberg, Algado,
and Pollard 2005).
Occupational deprivation

It refers to external factors that stand

outside the immediate control of an
individual, which prevents him or her
from engaging in meaningful
occupations. Prisoners, slaves, and
victims of human trafficking represent
a population that experiences
prolonged occupational deprivation
(Whiteford 2000).
Occupational imbalance

It refers to the condition in which an

individual is underemployed or
unemployed, has too little to do, or is
left out of occupations that can enrich
one’s lives. This may also involve the
case of a person who has too many
occupations or is overemployed,
which usually happens to single
parents or people with complex family
duties and multiple work demands
(Wolf, et al. 2010).
Occupational marginalization
It refers to the process of unjustly
limiting or excluding people to
participate in certain occupations due
to situations wherein people are
stigmatized by their gender, illness,
or disability (Townsend and Wilcock
2004, Wolf, et. Al. 2010). An example
of occupational marginalization is
women not being assigned or
promoted to do managerial work
because of having been perceived as
weak and emotional. Another
example is when a person living with
HIV/AIDS is barred, demoted, or
removed from his or her job because
CLIMATE CHANG
INJUSTICE
 Climate change injustice is a condition where the least
responsible for climate change-the oppressed, marginalized,
and vulnerable sectors of society-bear the greatest brunt or
negative impacts. Even the people coming from many
developing countries (which emit low greenhouse gases
compared to many developed countries) are the ones who
greatly suffer the ill-effects and consequences of global
warming, including floods, biodiversity loss, and diseases
(Althor, Watson, and Fuller 2016). Greenhouse gases emit
carbon footprints, which are produced through fossil fuel
combustion, deforestation, and massive mono-cropping
agricultural activities. According to the study of Althor, Watson,
and Fuller (2016), the salient features of climate injustice are
the following:
 01
Among the top three emitters of greenhouse gases in the world are the United
States, China, and the former USSR. These three countries contribute an estimated
of 40 percent to the global share in greenhouse gas emissions. Other significant
emitters of greenhouse gases are Canada, Australia, Brazil, Russia, and much of
Western Europe. These countries are considered free riders since they receive
benefits from the industries emitting greenhouse gases, such that their population
experiences increased well-being. While immensely contributing to climate change,
these countries are the least vulnerable to the negative impacts of the said
phenomenon because they have the resources to mitigate and cushion its effects.
02
• African countries and island-nations in the
Atlantic, Pacific (including the Philippines),
and Indian Oceans are considered forced
riders because they have low greenhouse
gas emissions, yet they are the most
vulnerable to the negative impact of
climate change and receive the least
benefits. They are vulnerable to climate
change because they have low GDP, slow
economic growth, and large social
inequalities, thus, resulting to fewer
resources to cope with the negative effects
of climate change. Moreover, their
geographical location make them highly
susceptible for they are mostly found in
tropical areas, where erratic and severe
climate change activities take place.
 03
Both free rider and forced rider countries have a common responsibility in reducing
greenhouse gas mids emissions, but have different levels of emission reduction
obligations. However, free rider countries are slow-and to some extent unwilling to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions because doing so will reduce their economic
growth. Furthermore, the financial contributions of free rider countries to help
forced rider countries to mitigate and adapt with the negative effects of climate
change have also been measly and inadequate, leaving many forced rider countries
to fend on their own. This results into forced rider countries having fewer incentives
or motivations to meaningfully reduce or halt their greenhouse gas emissions.
 In summary, free rider countries are in a win-win situation of
achieving high economic growth by using fossil fuel, deforesting
other countries, and using extensive mono-cropping agricultural
activities with few consequences from the resulting climate
change. On the other hand, island-nations and African countries
in the tropics suffer low economic growth and severe negative
climate change impacts. Given these conditions, this truly makes
climate change injustice a global scale.
THEORIES OF
SOCIAL JUSTICE
Utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Bentham
(1789) and Mill (1861/1998) considered social justice to be
anchored on the maximum good of the greatest number of
individuals, and whatever is painful or evil must be changed in favor
of the common interest. For them, what is good for the greatest
number of individuals should be determined based on utility or
usefulness. Actions or policies can be considered useful when its
actual or foreseeable consequences produce the greatest sum of
happiness. Thus, an act is considered just when it produces the best
consequences and the fruits of such consequences are enjoyed by
the greatest number of individuals, including the needy and the
oppressed. When distributing resources, for example, one must
consider who will benefit from it and the extent of its beneficiaries.
If such an act will have more beneficiaries and will result to more
happiness, then the distribution of resources would be more
utilitarian rather than benefited only by the few.
Justice as Fairness by John Rawls. This consists of two main principles of social justice:
liberty and equality (Rawls 1999), in that order. The first principle, liberty, states that
every person has an equal right to basic liberties and primary goods. Basic liberties
pertain to inalienable rights and freedoms, such as those which are stated in the 1948
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. On the other hand, primary goods
are those goods that anyone would want regardless of what everyone else wanted
(Robeyns and Brighouse 2010). In other words, primary goods refer to basic needs such as
food, water, and shelter. The second principle, equality, is further subdivided into two
principles: Fair Equality of Opportunity and Difference Principle, in that order. Fair Equality
of Opportunity states that individuals with the same talents and willingness to use them
should be given the same educational and economic opportunities regardless of their
social status or background. On the other hand, the Difference Principle requires social
institutions to address income and wealth inequalities so that the worst off can have a
chance in life (Wenar 2013). This means that a form of distributive justice is necessary,
wherein the wealth and resources of the rich will be evenly distributed so that the poor
may have an opportunity to escape from poverty. For Rawls, inequalities are inevitable
Politics of Difference by Iris Marion Young. Young
(1990) argues that injustice operates in various social
groupings of people (be it based on race, gender, age,
ability, etc.) who experience any of the five faces of
oppression-exploitation, marginalization,
powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and violence. By
social groups, Young (1990) means “a collection of
persons differentiated from at least one other group
by cultural forms, practices, or way of life.” Young
adds that social justice can be achieved “when
institutions promote the reproduction of and respect
for group differences without oppression.” This means
that structural injustices such as racism, sexism,
classism, etc. must be tackled; freedom from all of the
five faces of oppression must be assured; and that a
meaningful place for people to participate in society
and decision-making process must be provided. For
example, people of darker complexion should not be
discriminated and should be given an equal
opportunity to live a meaningful life.
Parity of
Participation Parity of Participation by Nancy Fraser. This
“requires social arrangements that permit all
members of society to interact with one another as
peers” (Fraser 1996), and “dismantling
institutionalized obstacles that prevent some people
from participating on a par with others, as full
partners in social life” (Fraser 2009). For parity of
participation to be realized, Fraser (1996) argues that
there should be a redistribution of wealth,
opportunity, and material resources to those who
have been excluded from society. This redistribution
would allow them to become independent, have a
voice, and achieve social esteem. Those excluded
should also be recognized, given equal respect, and
be represented in decision-making processes and
contestation procedures in the political realm so they
can safeguard their interests and well-being. In the
Philippines, an example of parity of participation is the
party-list system, which represents various
marginalized sectors. Party-lists acquire seats in
Principles of Social Justice by David Miller. Miller (2000)
argues that people’s view of fairness is dependent on the
underlying principle of justice that a society or community
holds, which follows a particular mode of human
relationship. Miller identifies three basic modes of human
relationships: (a) solidaristic community, (b) instrumental
associations, and (c) citizenship. A solidaristic community
consists of people who share a common identity and a
common ethos, closely resembling a gemeinschaft
community. In this mode of human relationship, the “need”
principle of justice is dominant, whereby each member of
the community is expected to contribute in relieving others’
needs, in proportion to his or her ability to address the need
and to the extent of his or her liability in the matter (degree
of closeness to the person in need). Need here is seen as a
basic necessity that, when deprived, harms the person and
On the other hand, societies characterized by instrumental associations consist
of people who relate with one another in a utilitarian manner, which closely
resembles that of gesellschaft communities. In this mode of human relationship,
the “desert” principle of justice is prevalent where everything operates in
meritocracy. In meritocracy, fairness is measured based on the actual
performance of a person, rather than his or her attributes. It assumes that
superior performance should attract superior reward; thus, there is justice when
an individual receives back (by way of a reward) an equivalent of what he or she
has contributed in achieving the contractual goals of his or her community.
Lastly, societies characterized by citizenship consist of people who see
themselves as members of a political society, are governed under the rule of
law, and follow a social contract where relationships with one another is not just
instrumental. Members of these societies also see themselves as fellow citizens
bounded by nationalism and patriotism. In this mode of human relationship, the
“equality” principle of justice is most relevant because everyone in the society
is deemed equal, as they automatically become a bearer of a set of rights and
The aforementioned theories serve as guides for the human race
to attain the highest degree of social justice in practice. These
theories also enable humankind to overcome the stubborn and
pernicious obstacles brought about by poverty, inequality,
predatory capitalism, occupational injustice, and climate change
injustice. Overcoming such obstacles might be a gargantuan
task, but with optimism, such theories presuppose that
awareness of the forms of discrimination and of the strategies
that can be done to eliminate these will lead to positive actions,
rather than merely accepting that nothing can be done.
Thank You