BY: CELIAFLOR

BIOCHEMISTRY RODRIGUEZ-
FERRER,PhD
 INTRODUCTION TO
BIOCHEMISTRY
• Biochemistry is the study of chemical
processes in living organisms. It is a hybrid
science that combines biology and chemistry,
focusing on the atoms and molecules in living
organisms. The ultimate goal of biochemistry
is to explain all life processes in molecular
detail. Biochemistry deals with the structures,
functions, and interactions of biological
macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic
acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, which
provide the structure of cells and perform
many of the functions associated with life.
The chemistry of the cell also depends on the
reactions of smaller molecules and ions.
HISTORY OF BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry's roots can be traced back

to ancient civilizations, particularly the
Greeks, who pondered the composition
and processes of life. Early studies on
fermentation and respiration by figures
like Antoine Lavoisier in the 18th century
laid groundwork for understanding
biological processes through a chemical
lens.
FATHER OF BIOCHEMISTRY

 Carl Alexander Neuberg (29 July 1877 –

30 May 1956) was an early pioneer in
biochemistry, and he has sometimes
been referred to as the "father of modern
biochemistry".
 His notable contribution to science
includes the discovery of the carboxylase
and the elucidation of alcoholic
fermentation which he showed to be a
process of successive enzymatic steps, an
understanding that became crucial as to
how metabolic pathways would be
investigated by later researchers.
 19TH CENTURY
DEVELOPMENT

 The formal inception of

biochemistry is often
attributed to the early 19th
century. A significant
milestone occurred in 1833
when Anselme Payen
discovered diastase (now
known as amylase), marking
one of the first enzyme
discoveries.
 19TH CENTURY
DEVELOPMENT

 This was followed by Eduard

Buchner's demonstration in
1897 of alcoholic
fermentation using cell-free
extracts, which many
consider a pivotal moment
in biochemistry's
establishment as a
discipline.
 19TH CENTURY DEVELOPMENT

 Justus von Liebig's influential work,

Animal Chemistry (1842), contributed to
the chemical theory of metabolism,
further solidifying biochemistry's
foundations. The term "biochemistry"
itself was first recorded in English in
1848, but it gained formal recognition in
1903 when Carl Neuberg coined it to
describe the new discipline merging
biology and chemistry.
20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
 The 20th century saw biochemistry
evolve rapidly, particularly with
advancements in molecular biology
and enzymology. The field
expanded to include the study of
macromolecules such as proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and
lipids, which are essential for life
processes. Notable figures like Emil
Fischer and Frederick Gowland
Hopkins contributed to the
understanding of protein chemistry
and enzymatic functions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIVING MATTER
LIFE: the sum total of al bodily activities of an
organism. It is sometimes a force of energy from
which all the different worlds of activity could be
expressed.
Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, the
current understanding is descriptive. Life is
considered a characteristic of organisms that
exhibit all or most of the following features:
• Living Things Reproduce (Reproduction).
The ability to produce new individual organisms,
either asexually from a single parent organism,
or sexually from two parent organisms.
• Living Things Grow (Growth). Maintenance of
a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism. A
growing organism increases in size in all of its
parts, rather than simply accumulating matter.
• Living Things Develop. To develop is to change
shape or form.
• Living Things need food and uses Energy
(Metabolism). Transformation of energy by
converting chemicals and energy into cellular
components (anabolism) and decomposing
organic matter (catabolism). Living things require
energy to maintain internal organization
(homeostasis) and to produce the other
phenomena associated with life.
• Homeostasis: Regulation of the internal
environment to maintain a constant state; for
example, electrolyte concentration or sweating to
reduce temperature.
• Living Things Are made of Cells
(Organization): Being structurally composed of
one or more cells — the basic units of life.
• Adaptation: The ability to change over time in
response to the environment. This ability is
fundamental to the process of evolution and is
determined by the organism's heredity, diet, and
external factors.
• Response to stimuli: A response can take many
forms, from the contraction of a unicellular
organism to external chemicals, to complex
reactions involving all the senses of multicellular
organisms. A response is often expressed by
motion; for example, the leaves of a plant turning
toward the sun (phototropism), and chemotaxis.
These complex processes, called physiological
functions, have underlying physical and chemical
bases, as well as signaling and control mechanisms
that are essential to maintaining life.
BIOCHEMISTRY AND
THE LIVING STATE
REVIEW ON THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
The chemical level is the simplest level of structural organization,
yet it’s the most important. Without the proper chemicals in the proper
amounts, the cells, - eventually the body - will die.
MATTER – anything that has mass and occupies space.
 May be solid, liquid or gas.
 All forms of matter are composed of chemical elements.

ENERGY – the capacity to do work (put mass into motion).

 Two basic types are potential (stored) and kinetic (energy of motion)
 Forms of energy include chemical, electrical and radiant.
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

ELEMENT – a form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler

substances by normal chemical reactions.

COMPOUND – when two or more elements combine.

Periodic table of elements lists 118 chemical elements, each with
chemical symbols.
WHAT’S A BODY MADE OF?

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen make up 96% of total body

weight-
Oxygen – 65%
Carbon – 18.5%
Hydrogen – 9.5%
Nitrogen – 3.3%
Calcium and Phosphorous compose another 2.5% of total body
weight-
Calcium – 1.5%
Phosphorous – 1%
ATOM

ATOM – smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical

reaction. When two or more combine they are called MOLECULE.
When one atom combines with or breaks apart from another atom, a
chemical reaction occurs.
Each atom consists of a nucleus and one or more electron shells.
Three basic subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
PROTONS – are positively charged particles in the atom’s nucleus.
 Each element has a unique number of protons.
 Number of protons determines the element’s atomic number.
  The positive charge of a nucleus equals the number of its protons.
 One proton weighs the same as one neutron, which is equal to
1,836 times the weight of one electron.

NEUTRONS – are uncharged (neutral) particle’s in the atom’s nucleus.

ELECTRONS – are negatively charged particles that orbit around the
nucleus in different electron shells.
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
CHEMICAL BONDS

CHEMICAL BONDS – specific forces of attraction or energy

relationship that holds or binds atoms of elements to other
atoms to maintain stability.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
IONIC BOND- electron transfer/transfer of electron
 Atoms with fewer than 4 electrons in its outermost shell
tend to give up electrons (electron donor). And as a
result, the donor atom becomes chemically stable,
producing a positive ion. Ex. H, Na, K, Ca, Fe
Atoms with more than 4
electrons in its outermost shell
tend to gain electrons (electron
acceptor). As a result, the atom
acceptor or receiver becomes
more chemically stable due to
the filling up of its outermost
shell, producing a negative ion.
Ex. Cl
COVALENT BOND – (electron sharing)
formed by sharing of electrons between
atoms.
Non-polar covalent bond – strong bond
wherein two atoms share equally (pulled with
equal force) one or more electrons.
Polar covalent bond – formed between 2
different atoms wherein shared electrons tend
to be pulled closer to one element than the
other (unequally shared).
 HYDROGEN BOND –
interaction between a
hydrogen atom to a
negatively charged atom
in one molecule and
another negatively
charged atom in the same
or different molecule.
MOLECULES

MOLECULES – form when two or more atoms of the same element

react with one another or combine with atoms of another element.
 The smallest part of a compound that still has the properties of
that compound.
 Could be inorganic or organic molecules.
INORGANIC (compounds without carbon except CO2): mainly
water, acid, base, salts and gases.
ORGANIC (compounds with carbon): mainly carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids.
INORGANIC MOLECULES

WATER – most abundant protoplasmic material being greater in

younger and more active individuals.
 55 to 90% of protoplasm
 Makes up 65 to 70% of total body weight (11 to 12 gallons or 49
liters)
 Tasteless and odorless in pure form.
 Babies have approximately 75 to 80% water and as we grow older
this percentage decreases until the percentage is reduced to
approximately 60 to 65% for men and 50 to 60% for women. The
human brain is about 85% water and our bones are between 10
to 15% water.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Universal Solvent
2. High specific heat and latent heat of vaporization
3. High degree of thermal conductivity
4. Immiscible with lipids
5. Neutral pH
6. Liquid in form at room temperature
7. High surface tension

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. Dissolves or holds in suspension the materials of the protoplasm
2. Furnishes a medium for some vital processes and substances (nutrients, wastes &
hormones)
3. Moistens surfaces for gas diffusion
4. Regulates body temperature
5. Helps in functions of the sense organs
6. Serves as lubricant for movable surfaces
7. Serves as cushion for the brain and spinal cord
ACIDS, BASES & SALTS
ACID - [from Latin, acidus, “sour”] a sour-tasting compound that
releases
hydrogen ions to form solution with a pH of less than 7, reacts with a
base to form a salt and turns blue litmus red.
 Any chemical compound which when dissolved in H 2O yields
hydrogen ions (H+) or donates protons.
 Corrosive – can burn through clothing and damage the skin like
hydrochloric acid (HCL); nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
BASE - a compound that releases hydroxyl ions to form a solution
with a pH
greater than 7, reacts with acids to form salts and turns red litmus
paper blue.
 Any chemical compound which when dissolved in water yields
hydroxyl ion (OH) or accepts protons (Hydrogen ion) furnished by an
acid.
SALT - compounds that release ions other than hydrogen ions or
hydroxide
ions; acts as buffers or regulators of acid-base balance and it is
important in vital
 pH – an expression of the number of free
ions in solution and is a measurement of
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
 pH 7 - neutral or neither acidic nor basic
( equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions).
 Below pH 7 - acidic or with more
hydrogen than hydroxyl ions.
 Above pH 7 - basic or alkaline (with more
hydroxyl than hydrogen ions).
 Buffer - chemical substance that
stabilizes acidity or alkalinity
 GASES – oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen

OXYGEN – (O2) carried primarily by hemoglobin of the RBC and partly

by plasma of the blood.
- taken in by both plants and animals for oxidation which produce
energy for chemical reactions.
note: plants give off oxygen as a by-product of
photosynthesis.
CARBON DIOXIDE – (CO2) carried in three pathways
5% in solution in the plasma as in carbonic acid
10% in combination with amino groups of hemoglobin
 85% in the form of sodium and potassium bicarbonate
(blood salts) both in plasma and RBC.
Note: CO2 is given off by animals because it is toxic
to the cells of the body.

NITROGEN (N) – important component of the air.

ORGANIC MOLECULES

 Always contain carbon and hydrogen.

 Atoms are usually held together by covalent bond.
 Usually composed of long chains.
 Usually associated with living things.
 Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
The four functional groups of organic compounds:
 Hydroxyl group (OH)
 Carbonyl Group (C=O)
 Carboxyl group (-COOH)
 Amino group (-NH2)
BIOMOLECULES
• Biomolecules are the molecular
components of cells in biochemistry. They
are the building blocks of life and perform
important functions in living organisms.
Biomolecules include large
macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids,
as well as small molecules such as
primary metabolites, secondary
metabolites, and natural products. Most
biomolecules are organic compounds, and
just four elements—oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up 96% of
the human body's mass.
• Biomolecules are produced by living organisms
and include proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and
nucleic acids. There are four major classes of
biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids. Each of these classes has a
unique structure and function in living
organisms. Carbohydrates are important energy
sources required for various metabolic activities
and may bind to proteins and lipids that play
important roles in cell interactions. Proteins are
polymers of amino acids arranged in the form of
polypeptide chains and make up around 50% of
the cellular dry weight. Nucleic acids, such as
DNA and RNA, store and transmit genetic
information, while lipids are important
components of cell membranes and serve as
energy storage molecules.
CARBOHYDRATES
composed of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen in
definite ratio, 1:2:1, with
general formula of CH2O
 The main source of
energy in the body.
 Building blocks are
glucose molecules
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. MONOSACCHARIDES – simple sugars made up f a single, straight

chain of 6-carbon sugars important source of energy for the cells;
sub-units of which most polysaccharides are made.
 Saccharin (C6H12O6) – synthetic sweetening agent much sweeter
than sugar.
- sweet tasting and with reducing properties.
 Most abundant monosaccharides are hexoses (with 6-carbon
sugars) and pentoses (with 5-carbon sugars)
 a. Glucose – blood sugar or dextrose or grape sugar
b. Fructose – fruit sugar or levulose
c. Galactose – milk sugar
Pentoses: form constituent groups of nucleic acids and
nucleotides.
a. Arabinose – gum Arabic
b. Ribose – constituent of RNA
c. Deoxyribose – constituent of DNA
2. DISACCHARIDE OR OLIGOSACCHARIDES –(C12 H22O11) with two or
three 6-carbon sugars (12 carbon sugar); two monosaccharides
bonded together; principle sugar transported throughout the bodies of
land plants.
a. Lactose (milk sugar) – glucose + galactose
source: milk of mammals
characteristics: least sweet and not very soluble in H2O

b. Maltose (malt sugar) – glucose + glucose

source: germinating seeds
characteristics: sweet and soluble in H2O
 c. Sucrose (table sugar/ cane or beet sugar) – glucose + fructose
source: cane or beet
characteristics: common table sugar, sweetest and most
soluble in H2O
3. POLYSACCHARIDES – complex sugar; multiple sugars or combinations
of more than two monosaccharides made up of polymers (long chain f
the same substance, usually glucose molecules)
characteristics: not sweet; slightly soluble in H2O, not chemically
reactive due to being insoluble.
function: serves as structural polysaccharides
 a. CELLULOSE – structural material in plants; consists of 2,000
united glucose units which contributes to the rigidity of the
cell wall to withstand tremendous weight of the cell content.

b. ALGINIC ACID – found in brown algae and kelp; used in

medical and ointment bases as thickener, emulsifier and
stabilizer (ability to prevent precipitation of protein).

c. CARAGHEENAN (Carageenin) – found in red seaweeds for

medical and industrial uses like holding cocoa, particles in
suspension (chocolate drinks); used in toothpaste; used in the
treatment of peptic ulcer.
 d. PECTINS – responsible for the gelling properties of fruits due
to longer linear chains and absence of calcium.
function: serves as reserve food supplies (storage) due to its
large molecular size.
e. GLYCOGEN (animal starch emergency sugar) – reserve food
found only in animals and consists of 12 to 18 glucose units.
f. STARCH – reserve food only in plants and is made up of a
chain of 24 to 26 glucose units.
LIPIDS

LIPIDS – composed of carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen with no
definite ratio, the number of
oxygen atoms is very much
less compared to hydrogen
atoms.
 Storage of energy and
important component of the
cell membrane.
 Building blocks are fatty
acids and glycerol.
FUNCTIONS
 more heat than carbohydrates; with greater carbon in
proportion to oxygen.
 For storage of reserved food; large molecular size and more
economical since greater energy is needed to oxidize thus more
practical to store.
 Insulation; poor conductor of heat and protection (shock absorber).
 Structural component; plasma and nuclear membrane formation.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Lipids are often used to designate then whole category of fatty and
fat-related substances.
2. The physical properties of fat are determined largely by the
component fatty acids.
3. It lacks basic building block and are soluble in fat solvents like
alcohol (ethanol); ether; chloroform; benzene, acetone, carbon
tetrachloride.
4. Pure fats are neutral fats.
5. Ordinary fat or glyceride: called fat if solid, oil if liquid.
ANIMAL GLYCERIDES – usually fats which at room temperature slowly
become rancid when exposed to air.

PLANT GLYCERIDE – usually oils which are more unsaturated and less
susceptible to rancidity (because it contains tocopherol (Vit. E) which
inhibit oxidation.

FORMS OF LIPIDS
1. SIMPLE – esters of fatty acids, glycerol and alcohols
a. Fats (Neutral Fats) – esters of fatty acids and glycerol and contain a
large amount of saturated fatty acids and is solid at 20˚ C.
 Tallow (hard) : fatty acids with long carbon chains. Ex. Candle
 Waxes : esters of long-chained fatty acids and alcohol or sterols
with high molecular weight. Ex. Bees wax, whale wax, lanolin

b. Oils – with large quantities of unsaturated fatty acids; fewer carbon

atoms than solid animal fats and liquid at 20 ˚ C.
 Vegetable (olive) and Animal oil
 Butter (true fat) called triglycerides or esters of an alcohol;
Can exist as a solid and liquid under ordinary room temperature.

2. COMPOUND – esters of fatty acids and alcohol in combination with

other compounds.

a. Phospholipids –lipids with phosphoric acid and nitrogenous

compounds
 Lecithin (egg yolk)
 Cephalin (Brain)
 Sphingomyelin (brain, kidney, liver, lungs, spleen and egg yolk)
b. Glycolipids – fatty acids in combination with a carbohydrate.
c. Sulfolipids – lipids in combination with sulfate groups
d. Lipoprotein – lipid attached to the proteins of plasma
e. Lipopolysaccharides- lipids attached to carbohydrates
f. Sterols (steroids) – lipids which are made up of solid alcohol with no
fat-like properties
 Cholesterol, ergosterol (becomes calciferol or Vitamin D when
activated by the UV rays of the sun) calciferol, carotene
 Steroid Hormones – testosterone, estrogen and progesterone,
cortisone and aldosterone.
PROTEINS

Are essential to the structure

and function of all living cells
and viruses.
 The simplest form is amino
acids, which cannot be stored
when present in excess but if
at the time in excess is
present, there is a need for
glucose and glycerol, 60% of
the excess of amino acids can
be converted into either
glucose or glycerol.
 The chemical properties of proteins are determined by
the amino acids that compose them. Amino acids differ
in the nature of the -R- portion. The carboxyl group (-
COOH) gives its acidic properties while the amino group
(-NH2) its basic properties.
 composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen plus
other elements such as sulfur, iron, iodine, etc.
 for growth and repair of tissues, component of the cell
membrane, acts as organic buffer and plays a major role
in chemical reactions as enzymes, in protection of the
body as antibodies.
 Functions of Proteins
a. Movement – actin and myosin proteins in muscles
enables muscle to move.
b. Structure – collagen, the most abundant protein in the
human body, forms the connective fibers of bones, tendons,
ligaments and cartilage. Collagen holds your body together
and gives strength, flexibility and shape to our skin. Keratin
is the protein that makes up hair, horn and feathers.
c. Biochemical Control – special protein called enzymes
help control chemical activities or reactions in cells.
d. Transport – the functioning of the bloodstream depends
on the protein hemoglobin.
e. Storage – the protein casein in milk stores amino acids
for use by baby animals.
f. Regulation – many hormones are proteins. Insulin, helps
in the control of sugar in the blood.
g. Defense – antibodies are special defense proteins that
help animals fight off invasions by viruses and bacteria.
NUCLEIC ACID

 composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous.

 important in protein synthesis as RNA and in heredity as DNA.
 Building blocks are the nucleotides, which are made up of a
pentose sugar (ribose and deoxyribose), a nitrogen base (purines
and pyrimidines) and phosphoric acid (phosphate group).
 In DNA, purines are adenine and guanine; pyrimidines are
cytosine and thymine.
 In RNA, thymine is replaced by Uracil.
 DNA RNA

Sugar present Deoxyribose Ribose

COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA

Nitrogen base Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine & Uracil, Adenine, Cytosine,
Guanine Guanine

Shape Double Helix Single Stranded

Function Carries the instruction that Carries out the information in

controls cellular activities the DNA