Foods, microorganisms, and humans have

had a long and interesting association that

developed long before the beginning of
recorded history.
 Foods are not only of nutritional value to
those who consume them but often are ideal
culture media for microbial growth.
Fermentation by some microorganisms can
lead to food preservation instead of food
spoilage.
Microorganisms can be used to transform raw foods
into gastronomic delights, including cheeses, pickles,
sausages, and soy sauce.
Wines, beers, and other alcoholic products also are
produced through microbial activity.
On the other hand, foods also can serve as vehicles
for disease transmission, and the detection and
control of pathogens and food spoilage
microorganisms are important parts of food
microbiology.
 pickle
sausage

soy sauce
Wholesome, nutrient-rich foods are
important for all people.
Microbial growth in foods can result in either
preservation or spoilage, depending on the
microorganisms involved and the food storage
conditions.
Contamination by disease-causing
microorganisms can occur at any point in the
food-handling sequence.
MICROORGANISM GROWTH IN
FOODS

Microbial growth is controlled by factors

related to the food itself, or intrinsic factors,
and also to the environment where the food is
being stored, or what are described as extrinsic
factors.
The intrinsic or food-related factors include pH,
moisture content, water activity or availability,
oxidation-reduction potential, physical structure of the
food, available nutrients, and the possible presence of
natural antimicrobial agents.
Extrinsic or environmental factors include
temperature, relative humidity, gases (CO2, O2)
present, and the types and numbers of
microorganisms present in the food.
INTRINSIC FACTORS

Food composition is a critical intrinsic factor that

influences microbial growth. If a food consists
primarily of carbohydrates, spoilage does not result in
major odors.
Thus foods such as breads, jams, and some fruits
first show spoilage by fungal growth. In contrast,
when foods contain large amounts of proteins and/or
fats (for example, meat and butter), spoilage can
produce a variety of foul odors.
This proteolysis and anaerobic breakdown of
proteins that yields foul-smelling amine
compounds is called putrefaction.
Degradation of fats ruins food as well. For example,
the production of short-chained fatty acids from fats
renders butter rancid and unpleasant.
The pH of a food also is critical because a low
pH favors the growth of yeasts and molds.
In neutral or alkaline pH foods, such as meats,
bacteria are more dominant in spoilage and
putrefaction.
Depending on the major substrate present in
a food, different types of spoilage may occur.
The presence and availability of water also
affect the ability of microorganisms to colonize
foods.
 Simply by drying a food, one can control or
eliminate spoilage processes.
Water, even if present, can be made less
available by adding solutes such as sugar and
salt. Water availability is measured in terms of
water activity (aw).
This represents the ratio of relative humidity
of the air over a test solution compared with
that of distilled water.
When large quantities of salt or sugar are
added to food, most microorganisms are
dehydrated by the hypertonic conditions and
cannot grow
Even under these adverse conditions,
osmophilic and xerophilic microorganisms may
spoil food.
Osmophilic [Greek osmus, impulse, and
philein, to love] microorganisms grow best in or
on media with a high osmotic concentration,
whereas xerophilic [Greek xerosis, dry, and
philein, to love] microorganisms prefer a low
aw environment and may not grow under high
aw conditions.
The physical structure of a food also can affect the course
and extent of spoilage.
The grinding and mixing of foods such as sausage and
hamburger not only increase the food surface area and alter
cellular structure, but also distribute contaminating
microorganisms throughout the food.
This can result in rapid spoilage if such foods are stored
improperly.
Vegetables and fruits have outer skins (peels and rinds)
that protect them from spoilage.
Often spoilage microorganisms have specialized enzymes
that help them weaken and penetrate protective peels and
rinds, especially after the fruits and vegetables have been
bruised.
Many foods contain natural antimicrobial
substances, including complex chemical
inhibitors and enzymes.
Coumarins found in fruits and vegetables
exhibit antimicrobial activity.
Cow’s milk and eggs also contain antimicrobial
substances.
Eggs are rich in the enzyme lysozyme that can
lyse the cell walls of contaminating gram-
positive bacteria.
Other interesting foods with antimicrobial
activities include the hot sauces used on raw
oysters and other seafoods.
Tabasco and other hot red pepper sauces
apparently have particularly desirable
antimicrobial characteristics.
• Antimicrobial substances
– coumarins – fruits and vegetables
– lysozyme – cow’s milk and eggs
– aldehydic and phenolic compounds – herbs and
spices
– allicin – garlic
– polyphenols – green and black teas
EXTRINSIC FACTORS

Temperature and relative humidity are important

extrinsic factors in determining whether a food will
spoil.
At higher relative humidities microbial growth is
initiated more rapidly, even at lower temperatures
(especially when refrigerators are not maintained in a
defrosted state).
When drier foods are placed in moist environments,
moisture absorption can occur on the food surface,
eventually allowing microbial growth.
The atmosphere in which the food is stored
also is important. This is especially true with
shrink-packed foods because many plastic films
allow oxygen diffusion, which results in
increased growth of surface-associated
microorganisms. Excess CO2 can decrease the
solution pH, inhibiting microbial growth.
 Sources of microorganisms in food
The primary sources of microorganisms in food include:
1. Soil and water
2. Plant and plant products
3. Food utensils
4. Intestinal tract of man and animals
5. Food handlers
6. Animal hides and skins
7. Air and dust
 MICROBIAL GROWTH AND FOOD SPOILAGE

Because foods are such excellent sources of

nutrients, if the intrinsic and extrinsic conditions
are appropriate, microorganisms grow rapidly
and make what once was an attractive and
appealing food into a sour, foul-smelling or
fungus-covered mass suitable only for the
garbage can.
 CAUSES OF FOOD
SPOILAGE

• 1. Moisture loss
• 2. Enzyme action
• 3. Microbial contamination
 1. SPOILAGE BY
MOISTURE LOSS

• Mainly affects fruit and vegetables.

• After harvesting they can no longer get water from
the soil.
• Moisture is lost through skins and leaves.
• Causes wrinkling, shrinkage and limpness.
 2. ENZYME ACTION

• Ripening
Enzymes cause food to ripen, then become over-ripe and
eventually decay. Starch changes to sugar, colour
changes and texture softens.

• Browning
When certain foods are cut and the surface exposed to
air, enzymes cause them to turn brown. e.g. apples,

• Enzymatic rotting
Enzymes in fish cause deterioration even at low
temperatures.
 CONTROLLING
ENZYMATIC SPOILAGE
• Inactivated by heating - cooking, canning.

• Cold temp slows action - cool storage.

• Enzymes in vegetables work at low temperatures

so they must be blanched before freezing.

• Acid inactivates enzymes - lemon juice used to

stop browning.

• Sulphur dioxide stops enzymatic spoilage.

 3. MICROBIAL
CONTAMINATION
• Yeast, mould and bacteria are the microbes that
cause food spoilage.
• Food at the optimum temperature is the ideal
place for microbes to grow.
• Yeast and mould spoil the outside of food and
can be seen.
• If the food is eaten it will probably be harmless,
unless they make mycotoxins.
• Bacteria cause spoilage by making toxins in food
- not visible.
• Souring bacteria spoil milk, yoghurt & cream.
When food spoils, the following may
change:
• appearance
• taste
• texture
• odour Food may become
© Food – a fact of life 2007
unsafe to eat.
• Growth of microbes in
food follows a typical
microbial growth pattern
• Growth rate depends on
the nutritional value and
temperature of the food

• Number of microbes depends on both

inoculum size and
growth rate
• Food spoilage occurs at high populations
density (at stationary phase) - retarding
microbial growth delays spoilage
 Food spoilage:
• We distinguish:
– Perishable food: meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk,
most fruit and vegetables
– Semi-perishable food: potatoes, apples, nuts
– Nonperishable food: sugar, flour, rice, dry beans
Related to water content (water activity) and implies
storage conditions
Meat and dairy products, with their high
nutritional value and the presence of easily
usable carbohydrates, fats, and proteins,
provide ideal environments for microbial
spoilage.
Proteolysis and putrefaction are typical
results of microbial spoilage of such high-
protein materials.
Unpasteurized milk undergoes a predictable
four-step succession during spoilage; acid
production by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis is
followed by additional acid production associated
with the growth of more acid tolerant organisms
such as Lactobacillus.
At this point yeasts and molds become dominant
and degrade the accumulated lactic acid, and the
acidity gradually decreases. Eventually protein-
digesting bacteria become active, resulting in a
putrid odor and bitter flavor.
In comparison with meat and dairy products, most fruits
and vegetables have a much lower protein and fat content
and undergo a different kind of spoilage.
Readily degradable carbohydrates favor vegetable
spoilage by bacteria, especially bacteria that cause soft
rots, such as Erwinia carotovora, which produces hydrolytic
enzymes.
The high oxidation-reduction potential and lack of
reduced conditions permits aerobes and facultative
anaerobes to contribute to the decomposition processes.
Bacteria do not seem important in the initial spoilage of
whole fruits; instead such spoilage often is initiated by
molds. These organisms have enzymes that contribute to
the weakening and penetration of the protective outer
skin.
Food spoilage problems occur with minimally
processed, concentrated frozen citrus products.
 These are prepared with little or no heat
treatment, and major spoilage can be caused by
Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc spp., which produce
diacetyl-butter flavors. Saccharomyces and
Candida can also spoil juices
Concentrated juice has a decreased water
activity (aw 0.8 to 0.83), and when kept frozen
at about 9°C, the juices can be stored for long
periods.
 However, when concentrated juices are
diluted with water that contains spoilage
organisms, or if the juice is stored in improperly
washed containers, problems can occur.
Molds are a special problem for tomatoes. Even
the slightest bruising of the tomato skin, exposing
the interior, will result in rapid fungal growth.
 Frequently observed genera include Alternaria,
Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Stemphylium.
This growth affects the quality of tomato
products, including tomato juices and ketchups
Molds can rapidly grow on grains and corn
when these products are held under moist
conditions .
 Infection of grains by the ascomycete
Claviceps purpura causes ergotism, a toxic
condition.
 Hallucinogenic alkaloids produced by this
fungus can lead to altered behavior, abortion,
and death if infected grains are eaten.
 Toxins
• ergotism
– toxic condition caused by growth of a fungus in
grains
• aflatoxins
– carcinogens produced in fungus-infected grains
and nut products
• fumonisins
– carcinogens produced in fungus-infected corn
 Food-borne Illness
• Food-Borne Infection
– ingestion of microbes, followed by growth, tissue
invasion, and/or release of toxins
• Food-Borne Intoxications
– ingestion of toxins in foods in which microbes
have grown
– include staphylococcal food poisoning, botulism,
Clostridium perfringens food poisoning, and
Bacillus cereus food poisoning
 Controlling Food Spoilage

With the beginning of agriculture and a decreasing

dependence on hunting and gathering, the need to
preserve surplus foods became essential to survival.
The use of salt as a meat preservative and the
production of cheeses and curdled milks was
introduced in Near Eastern civilization as early as
3000 B.C.
The production of wines and the preservation of
fish and meat by smoking also were common by this
time.
Louis Pasteur established the modern era of
food microbiology in 1857, when he showed
that microorganisms cause milk spoilage.
Pasteur’s work in the 1860s proved that heat
could be used to control spoilage organisms in
wines and beers.
 Historical Methods of Food
Preservation
• Primitive and tedious methods
–Drying
–Salting
–Sugaring
–Pickling
–Cold storage
 Drying
• Used to preserve fruit, vegetables,
meats, and fish.
• Mainly used in the south – warmer
climate.
• Causes the loss of many natural
vitamins.
 Salting
• Used extensively for pork, beef, and
fish.
• Costly due to high price of salt.
• Done mainly in cool weather
followed by smoking.
 Sugaring
• Used to preserve fruits for the
winter.
• Jams and jellies.
• Expensive because sugar
was scarce commodity in
early America.
 Pickling
• Fermenting
• Used to preserve vegetables.
• Use mild salt and vinegar brine.
• Increases the salt content and reduces
the vitamin content of the food.
• Oldest form of food preservation.
 Cold Storage
• Used extensively in the northern U.S.
• Root cellars were used to store
vegetables at 30-40 degrees F.
• Root cellars were replaced by ice
boxes in the mid 1800’s.
Foods can be preserved by a variety of
methods.
 It is vital to eliminate or reduce the populations
of spoilage and disease-causing microorganisms
and to maintain the microbiological quality of a
food with proper storage and packaging.
 Contamination often occurs after a package or
can is opened and just before the food is served.
This can provide an ideal opportunity for growth
and transmission of pathogens, if care is not
Removal of Microorganisms

Microorganisms can be removed from water, wine,

beer, juices, soft drinks, and other liquids by filtration.
This can keep bacterial populations low or eliminate
them entirely.
Prefilters and centrifugation often are used to
maximize filter life and effectiveness.
Several major brands of beer are filtered rather than
pasteurized to better preserve the flavor and aroma of
the original product.
Low Temperature

Refrigeration at 5°C retards microbial growth,

although with extended storage, psychrophiles and
psychrotrophs will eventually grow and produce
spoilage.
Slow microbial growth at temperatures below 10°C
has been described, particularly with fruit juice
concentrates, ice cream, and some fruits.
 Some microorganisms are very sensitive to cold and
their numbers will be reduced, but cold does not lead
to significant decreases in overall microbial
populations.
High Temperature

Controlling microbial populations in foods by means of high

temperatures can significantly limit disease transmission and
spoilage.
Heating processes, first used by Nicholas Appert in 1809 ,
provide a safe means of preserving foods, particularly when
carried out in commercial canning operations .
Canned food is heated in special containers called retorts at
about 115°C for intervals ranging from 25 to over 100 minutes.
The precise time and temperature depend on the nature of the
food. Sometimes canning does not kill all the microorganisms,
but only those that will spoil the food (remaining bacteria are
unable to grow due to acidity of the food, as an example).
Pasteurization involves heating food to a
temperature that kills disease-causing microorganisms
and substantially reduces the levels of spoilage
organisms.
In the processing of milk, beers, and fruit juices by
conventional low-temperature holding (LTH)
pasteurization, the liquid is maintained at 62.8°C for 30
minutes.
Products can also be held at 71°C for 15 seconds, a
high-temperature, short-time (HTST) process; milk can
be treated at 141°C for 2 seconds for ultra-high-
temperature (UHT) processing. Shorter-term processing
results in improved flavor and extended product shelf
life.
Despite efforts to eliminate spoilage microorganisms
during canning, sometimes canned foods are spoiled. This
may be due to spoilage before canning, under processing
during canning, and leakage of contaminated water
through can seams during cooling.
Spoiled food can be altered in such characteristics as
color, texture, odor, and taste. Organic acids, sulfides, and
gases (particularly CO2 and H2S) may be produced.
In flat sour spoilage no gas is generated and the can does
not swell, but its contents are rendered sour by the
presence of fermentation acids. If spoilage microorganisms
produce gas, both ends of the can will bulge outward to
give a swell.
Water Availability

Dehydration, such as lyophilization to produce

freeze-dried foods, is now a common means of
eliminating microbial growth.
The modern process is simply an update of older
procedures in which grains, meats, fish, and fruits
were dried.
The combination of free-water loss with an
increase in solute concentration in the remaining
water makes this type of preservation possible.
 ASSIGNMENT

Chemical food preservation