The Economics of Money, Banking, and

Financial Markets
Thirteenth Edition
Global Edition

Chapter 8
An Economic Analysis of
Financial Structure

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Preview
• A healthy and vibrant economy requires a financial
system that moves funds from people who save to
people who have productive investment opportunities.

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Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
8.1 Identify eight basic facts about the global financial
system.
8.2 Summarize how transaction costs affect financial
intermediaries.
8.3 Describe why asymmetric information leads to adverse
selection and moral hazard.
8.4 Recognize adverse selection and summarize the ways
in which they can be reduced.

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Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
8.5 Recognize the principal-agent problem arising from
moral hazard in equity contracts and summarize the
methods for reducing it.
8.6 Summarize the methods used to reduce moral hazard in
debt contracts.

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Basic Facts About Financial Structure
Throughout the World
• This chapter provides an economic analysis of how our
financial structure is designed to promote economic
efficiency.
• The bar chart in Figure 1 shows how American
businesses financed their activities using external funds
(those obtained from outside the business itself) in the
period 1970–2000 and compares U.S. data to those of
Germany, Japan, and Canada.

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Figure 1 Sources of External Funds for Nonfinancial
Businesses: A Comparison of the United States with
Germany, Japan, and Canada

Source: Andreas Hackethal and Reinhard H. Schmidt, “Financing Patterns: Measurement

Concepts and Empirical Results,” Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat Working Paper No. 125,
January 2004. The data are from 1970–2000 and are gross flows as percentage of the total, not
including trade and other credit data, which are not available.

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8 Basic Facts About Financial Structure
Throughout the World (1 of 2)
1. Stocks are not the most important sources of external
financing for businesses.
2. Issuing marketable debt and equity securities is not the
primary way in which businesses finance their
operations.
3. Indirect finance is many times more important than
direct finance
4. Financial intermediaries, particularly banks, are the
most important source of external funds used to finance
businesses.

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8 Basic Facts About Financial Structure
Throughout the World (2 of 2)
5. The financial system is among the most heavily
regulated sectors of the economy.
6. Only large, well-established corporations have easy
access to securities markets to finance their activities.
7. Collateral is a prevalent feature of debt contracts for
both households and businesses.
8. Debt contracts are extremely complicated legal
documents that place substantial restrictive covenants
on borrowers.

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Transaction Costs
• Financial intermediaries have evolved to reduce
transaction costs.
– Economies of scale
– Expertise

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Asymmetric Information: Adverse
Selection and Moral Hazard
• Adverse selection occurs before a transaction occurs.
• Moral hazard arises after the transaction has developed.
• Agency theory analyses how asymmetric information
problems affect economic behavior.

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The Lemons Problem: How Adverse
Selection Influences Financial Structure
• If quality cannot be assessed, the buyer is willing to pay
at most a price that reflects the average quality.
• Sellers of good quality items will not want to sell at the
price for average quality.
• The buyer will decide not to buy at all because all that is
left in the market is poor quality items.
• This problem explains fact 2 and partially explains fact 1.

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Tools to Help Solve Adverse Selection
Problems
• Private production and sale of information
– Free-rider problem
• Government regulation to increase information
– Not always works to solve the adverse selection
problem, explains Fact 5
• Financial intermediation
– Explains facts 3, 4, & 6
• Collateral and net worth
– Explains fact 7

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The Enron Implosion
• Enron Corporation declared bankruptcy in December
2001, up to that point the largest bankruptcy declaration
in U.S. history
• The Enron collapse illustrates that government regulation
can lessen asymmetric information problems but cannot
eliminate them. The Enron bankruptcy not only increased
concerns in financial markets about the quality of
accounting information supplied by corporations but also
led to hardship for many of the firm’s former employees,
who found that their pensions had become worthless

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How Moral Hazard Affects the Choice
Between Debt and Equity Contracts
• Called the Principal-Agent Problem:
– Principal: less information (stockholder)
– Agent: more information (manager)
• Separation of ownership and control of the firm
– Managers pursue personal benefits and power rather
than the profitability of the firm.

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Tools to Help Solve the Principal-Agent
Problem
• Monitoring (Costly State Verification)
– Free-rider problem
– Fact 1
• Government regulation to increase information
– Fact 5
• Financial Intermediation
– Fact 3
• Debt Contracts
– Fact 1

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How Moral Hazard Influences Financial
Structure in Debt Markets
• Borrowers have incentives to take on projects that are
riskier than the lenders would like.
– This prevents the borrower from paying back the loan.

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Tools to Help Solve Moral Hazard in Debt
Contracts
• Net worth and collateral
– Incentive compatible
• Monitoring and enforcement of restrictive covenants
– Discourage undesirable behavior
– Encourage desirable behavior
– Keep collateral valuable
– Provide information
• Financial intermediation
– Facts 3 & 4

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Summary Table 1 Asymmetric Information
Problems and Tools to Solve Them (1 of 2)
Asymmetric Information Tools to Solve It Explains Fact
Problem Number
Adverse selection Private production and sale of information 1, 2
Government regulation to increase 5
Blank

information
Financial intermediation 3, 4, 6
Blank

Collateral and net worth 7

Blank

Moral hazard in equity Production of information: monitoring 1

contracts (principal–agent
problem)
Government regulation to increase 5
Blank

information
Financial intermediation 3
Blank

Debt contracts 1
Blank

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Summary Table 1 Asymmetric Information
Problems and Tools to Solve Them (2 of 2)
Asymmetric Information Tools to Solve It Explains Fact
Problem Number
Moral hazard in debt Collateral and net worth 6, 7
contracts
Monitoring and enforcement of restrictive 8
Blank

covenants
Financial intermediation 3, 4
Blank

Note: List of facts:

1. Stocks are not the most important source of external financing.
2. Marketable securities are not the primary source of financing.
3. Indirect finance is more important than direct finance.
4. Banks are the most important source of external funds.
5. The financial system is heavily regulated.
6. Only large, well-established firms have access to securities markets.
7. Collateral is prevalent in debt contracts.
8. Debt contracts have numerous restrictive covenants.

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Application: Financial Development and
Economic Growth (1 of 2)
• Financial repression created by an institutional
environment is characterized by:
– Poor system of property rights (unable to use
collateral efficiently)
– Poor legal system (difficult for lenders to enforce
restrictive covenants)
– Weak accounting standards (less access to good
information)
– Government intervention through directed credit
programs and state-owned banks (less incentive to
proper channel funds to its most productive use)

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Application: Financial Development and
Economic Growth (2 of 2)
• The financial systems in developing and transition
countries face several difficulties that keep them from
operating efficiently.
• In many developing countries, the system of property
rights (the rule of law, constraints on government
expropriation, absence of corruption) functions poorly,
making it hard to use these two tools effectively.

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The Tyranny of Collateral
To use property, such as land or capital, as collateral, a
person must legally own it. Unfortunately, it is extremely
expensive and time-consuming for the poor in developing
countries to make their ownership of property legal.
When the financial system is unable to use collateral
effectively, the adverse selection problem worsens because
the lender needs even more information about the quality of
the borrower in order to distinguish a good loan from a bad
one. Little lending will take place, especially in transactions
that involve collateral, such as mortgages.

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Application: Is China a Counterexample to
the Importance of Financial Development?

As China gets richer, the strategy of maintaining a high

savings rate to support economic growth is unlikely to
continue to work. China will need to allocate its capital
more efficiently, which requires that it improve its financial
system. The Chinese leadership is well aware of this
challenge; the government has announced that state-
owned banks are being put on the path to privatization.

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Copyright

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