• Data Collection Techniques

– Every study is a search for information about the

given topic.
• Qualitative and Quantitative data
• The data should be sufficient to test the hypotheses
• Collection of the data should be feasible
– The question is from where and how to get the
information (the data).
– Data can be acquired from:
• Secondary sources
• Primary sources
• Secondary Sources of data
– Secondary sources are those, which have been
collected by other individuals or agencies.
– As much as possible secondary data should always be
considered first, if available.
• Why reinvent the wheel if the data already exists.
– When dealing with secondary data you should
ask:
• Is the owner of the data making them available to
you?
• Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
• Are the data in a format that you can work with?
• Advantages of Secondary data
• Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
• Most researches on past events or distant places have
to rely on secondary data sources.
• Limitations
• The information often does not meet one’s specific
needs.
– Definitions might differ, units of measurements
may be different and different time periods may be
involved.
• difficult to assess the accuracy of the information-
unknown research design or the conditions under
which the research took place.
• Data could also be out of date.
• Sources of Secondary Data
• Secondary data may be acquired from various sources:
• Department reports, production summaries,
financial and accounting reports, marketing and
sales studies, books, periodicals, reference books
encyclopedia, university publications (thesis,
dissertations, etc.), policy documents, statistical
compilations, research report, proceedings,
personal documents (historical studies) , etc.
• The Internet
• Primary Sources of Data
• Data that came into being by the people directly
involved in the research.
• Data collected afresh and for the first time happen
to be original in character.
• Qualitative and Quantitative data collection
techniques
– There are two approaches to primary data collection:
• the qualitative approach and
• the quantitative approach
• Qualitative data collection approaches
– Qualitative data can be acquired from:
– case studies,
– rapid rural appraisal methods,
– focus group discussions and
– key informant interviews.
i) Case studies
• A case study research involves a detailed investigation of
a particular case.
• Through Interviews (several forms of interviews-
open-ended, focused, or structured).
• Through Direct observation (field visits).
ii) Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
• RRA is a systematic but semi-structured activity often
by a multidisciplinary team.
• The techniques rely primarily on expert observation
coupled with semi-structured interviewing.
• The RRA method:
• takes only a short time to complete,
• tends to be relatively cheap, and
• make use of more 'informal' data collection
procedures.
• The techniques of RRA include:
– Interviews with individuals, households and key
informants
– Group interview techniques, including focus-group
interviewing, etc.
iii) Focus group discussions
– A FGD is a group discussion guided by a facilitator,
during which group members talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic.
• The group of individuals are expected to have
experience or opinion on the topic and selected by
the researcher.
– Its purpose is to obtain in-depth information on
concepts, perceptions and ideas of a group.
– It is more than a question-answer interaction.
• The idea is that group members discuss the topic
and interact among themselves with guidance
from the facilitator.
• Why use focus groups?
• The main purpose of a focus group research is to
draw upon respondents’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs,
experiences and reactions which would not be
captured using other methods.
– attitudes, feelings and beliefs may likely be
revealed via the social gathering and the
interaction.
• Compared to individual interviews, which aim to
obtain individual attitudes, beliefs and feelings,
focus groups elicit a multiplicity of views and
emotional processes within a group context.
• Strengths and limitations
– Provided the groups have been well chosen, in terms
of composition and number, FGDs can be a powerful
research tools which provide valuable information in
a short period of time and at relatively low cost.
– BUT, FGD should not be used for quantitative
purposes, such as the testing of hypotheses or the
generalization of findings for larger areas, which
would require more elaborate surveys.
• It may be risky to use FGDs as a single tool.
– In group discussions, people tend to centre their
opinions on the most common ones.
• Therefore, it is advisable to combine FGDs with other
methods (in-depth interviews).
• In case of very sensitive topics group members may
hesitate to express their feelings and experiences freely.
iv) Key Informant Interview
– The key informant interview technique is an
interviewing process for gathering information from
opinion leaders such as elected officials, government
officials, and business leaders, etc.
– This technique is particularly useful for:
• Raising community awareness about socio-
economic issues
• Learning minority viewpoints
• Gaining a deeper understanding of opinions and
perceptions, etc.
v) Triangulation
• Triangulation refers to the use of more than one
approach to the investigation of a research question
in order to enhance confidence in the findings.
• The purpose of triangulation is to obtain
confirmation of findings through convergence of
different perspectives.
• Why use triangulation
– By combining multiple methods, and empirical
materials, researchers can hope to overcome the
weakness or biases and problems that are associated
with a single method.
• Types of Triangulation: Four forms of triangulation:
– Data triangulation, which entails gathering data
through several sampling strategies at different times
and social situations.
– Investigator triangulation, which refers to the use
of more than one researcher in the field to gather and
interpret data.
– Theoretical triangulation, which refers to the use of
more than one theoretical proposition in interpreting
data.
– Methodological triangulation, which refers to the
use of more than one method for analyzing the data.
Quantitative Primary Data Collection Methods
Primary data may be collected through:
·Direct personal observation method, or
·Survey or questioning other persons.
• The Observation Method
– Observation includes the full range of monitoring
behavioral and non-behavioral activities.
• It is less demanding and has less bias.
• One can collect data at the time it occurs and need
not depend on reports by others.
• with this method one can capture the whole event
as it occurs.
Weakness of the Method
• The observer normally must be at the scene of the
event when it takes place.
– But it is often difficult or impossible to predict when and
where an event will occur.
• Observation is also slow and expensive process. It
requires either human observers or some type of costly
surveillance equipment.
• Its most reliable results are restricted to data that can
be determined by an open or deliberate action or
surface indicator.
• Limited as a way to learn about the past, or difficult to
gather information on such topics as intensions,
attitudes, opinions and preferences.
The Survey Method: the most common method
 To survey is to ask people questions in a
questionnaire (mailed or handed to people) or
during an interview and then record the answer.
 Surveys are used to generate data on economic
behavior, statistics, opinion polls, etc.
In a survey the unit of analysis is typically a
person.
Strength of the Survey Method
• It is a versatile or flexible method - capable of
many different uses.
• It does not require that there be a visual or other
objective perception of the sought information by a
researcher.
• One can seldom learn much about opinion and
attitudes except by questioning.
• Surveys tend to be more efficient and economical
than observations.
– Information can be gathered by a few well-
chosen questions. For instance, surveying using
telephone or mail is less expensive.
Weakness of the Method
– The quality of information secured depends heavily
on the ability and willingness of the respondents.
• A respondent may interpret questions or concept
differently from what was intended by the
researcher.
• A respondent may deliberately mislead the
researcher by giving false information.
• Surveys could be carried out through:
• Face to face personal interview
· By telephone interview
· By mail or e-mail, or
· By a combination of all these.
Personal Face to face Interview
– It is a two-way conversion where the respondent is
asked to provide information.
Advantages
• The depth and detail of the information that can be
secured far exceeds the information secured from
telephone or mail surveys.
• Interviewers can probe additional questions, gather
supplemental information through observation, etc.
• Interviewers can make adjustments to the language
of the interview because they can observe the
problems and effects with which the interviewer is
faced.
Limitations of the Method
• The method is an expensive enterprise.
• Interviewer may be reluctant to visit unfamiliar
neighborhoods.
– Biased results grow out of the three types of errors.
 Sampling error (discussed earlier)
 Non-response error
 Response error
Non-repose error
• This error occurs when you are not able to find those
whom you are supposed to study.
• In probability samples there are pre-designated
persons to be interviewed.
• When one is forced to interview substitutes, an unknown
bias is introduced.
• Under such circumstances one of the following could be
tried.
• The most reliable solution is to make callbacks.
• To treat all remaining non-respondents as a new
subpopulation and draw a random sample from the
subpopulation.
• To substitute someone else for the missing
respondent if the population is homogeneous.
Response error
 Errors are made in the processing and tabulating of
data.
• Respondent may fail to report fully and
accurately.
• Cheating by enumerators -with only limited
training and under little direct supervision.
• Enumerator can also distort the results of a survey
by in-appropriate suggestions, word emphasis,
tone of voice and question rephrasing.
• Perceived social distance between enumerator
and respondent also has a distorting effect.
Cost Considerations
 Interviewing is a costly exercise results from the
substantial enumerator time taken up with
administrative and travel tasks.
b) Telephone Interview
– Telephone can be a helpful medium of
communication in setting up interviews and
screening large population for rare respondent type.
Strength of this method
– Moderate travel and administrative costs
– Faster completion of the study
– Responses can be directly entered on to the
computer
Limitations of this method
– Respondents must be available by phone.
– The length of the interview period is short.
– Telephone interview can result in less complete
responses and
– those interviewed by phone find the experience to be
less rewarding than a personal interview.
C) Interviewing by mail or e-mail:
– Self-administrated questionnaires may be used in
surveys.
Advantages
– Lower cost than personal interview
– Persons who might otherwise be inaccessible can be
contacted (major corporate executives)
– Respondents can take more time to collect facts
Disadvantages
– Non response error is expected
– Large amount of information may not be acquired
Survey Instrument Design
– Actual instrument design begins by drafting specific
measurement questions.
– Both the subject and wording of each question are
important.
– The psychological order of the question needs to be
considered.
• Questions that are more interesting, easier to
answer, and less threatening usually are placed
early in the sequence to encourage response.
The main Components of a questionnaire
– Identification data: respondent’s name, address,
time and date of interview, code of interviewer, etc.
– Instruction: depends on type of survey and may
include skip questions
– Information sought: major portion of the
questionnaire
– Covering letter: brief purpose of the survey, who is
doing it, time involved, etc.
Designing of a Questionnaire
– In developing a survey instrument the following
issues need to be considered carefully:
• Question content
• Question wording
• Response form
• Question sequence
1. Question Content
– Both questions and statements could be used in
survey research.
• Using both in a given questionnaire gives the
researcher more flexibility.
– Minimizing the number of questions is highly
desirable, but we should never try to ask two
questions in one.
– Question content usually depends on the
respondent’s:
• ability, and
• willingness to answer the question accurately.
a) Is the question of proper scope?
– Respondent must be competent enough to answer the
questions.
• The respondent information level should be assessed
when determining the content and appropriateness of a
question.
• Questions that overtax the respondent’s recall
ability may not be appropriate.
b) Willingness of respondent to answer adequately
– Even if respondents have the information, they may be
unwilling to give it.
– Some topics are also too sensitive to discuss with strangers.
• Examples: the most sensitive topics concern money matters
and family life.
– If respondents consider a topic to be irrelevant and
uninteresting they would be reluctant to give an
adequate answer.
– Some of the main reasons for unwillingness:
• The situation is not appropriate for disclosing the
information
• Disclosure of information would be embarrassing
• Disclosure of information is a potential threat to
the respondent
Some approaches that may help to secure more complete
and truthful information:
– Use an indirect statement i.e., “other people”
– Motivate respondent to provide appropriate
information.
– Change the design of the questioning process.
– Apply appropriate questioning sequences that
will lead a respondent from „safe“ question
gradually to those that are more sensitive.
– Use methods other than questioning to secure the
data (observation).
2. Question Wording
a) Shared Vocabulary
In a survey the two parties must understand each other
and this is possible only if the vocabulary used is
common to both parties.
So, don’t use unfamiliar words or abbreviations
or ambiguous words.
Do not use emotionally loaded or vaguely
defined words.
b) Personalization
• Finding the right degree of personalization may be
a challenge.
• Instead of asking „What would you do about ...?, it
is better to ask „what would people do about ...? „
c) Provision of adequate alternatives
–Asking a question that does not accommodate all
possible responses can confuse and frustrate the
respondent.
• Are adequate alternatives provided? It is wise to
express each alternative explicitly in order to avoid
bias.
3. Response structure or format.
• A third major decision area is the degree and form of
the structure imposed on the responses.
• The options range from open (free choice of words)
to closed (specified alternatives).
a) Open Ended Questions
– An open-ended question (free response) question asks
questions to which respondents can give any answer.
• Open ended (free response) in turn range from
– those in which the respondents express
themselves extensively.
– Those in which the freedom is to choose one
word in a “fill in “ question.
Advantages
– Permit an unlimited number of possible answers
– Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and
clarify responses
– Permit creativity, self expression, etc.
Limitations
• Different respondents give different answers –
responses may not be consistent.
• Some responses may be irrelevant
• Comparison and statistical analysis become very
difficult.
• Articulate and highly literate respondents have an
advantage
» Requires greater amount of respondent time, thought
and effort.
b) Closed Questions
– Although the open response question may have many
advantages closed questions are generally preferable
in large surveys.
– Closed questions are often categorized as
dichotomous or multiple-choice questions.
Advantages
– Easier and quicker for respondents to answer
– Easier to compare the answers of different
respondents
– Easier to code and statistically analyze
– Are less costly to administer
– reduce the variability of responses
– make fewer demands on interviewer skill, etc.
Limitations
– Can suggest ideas that the respondents would not
otherwise have
– Respondents can be confused because of too many
choices
• During the construction of closed ended questions:
• The response categories provided should be
exhaustive.
» They should include all the possible
responses that might be expected.
• In multiple choice type questions, the answer
categories must be mutually exclusive.
» The respondent may not be compelled to
select more than one answer.
4) Question Sequence - order
• The order in which questions are asked can affect
the response as well as the overall data collection
activity.
• Transitions between questions should be smooth.
– Grouping questions that are similar will make
the questionnaire easier to complete, and the
respondent will feel more comfortable.
Some guides to improve quality include:
• The question process must quickly awaken interest
and motivate the respondent to participate in the
interview by choosing early interview questions that
are attention getting and not controversial in subject.
• The respondent should not be confronted by early
request for information that might be considered too
personal or threatening.
• The questioning process should move from simpler
questions to more complex ones.
5) Physical Characteristics of a Questionnaire
• The physical appearance of a questionnaire is
important as the wording of the questions asked.
• An improperly laid out questionnaire can lead
respondents to miss questions, can confuse them.
– So, the questionnaire should be spread out
properly.
• Putting more than one question on a line will
result in some respondents skipping the second
question.
• Abbreviating questions will result in
misinterpretation of the question.
Formats for Responses
– A variety of methods are available for presenting a
series of response categories.
• Boxes
• Blank spaces
Providing Instructions
– Every questionnaire whether to be self administered
by the respondent or administered by an interviewer
should contain clear instructions.
• General instructions: It is useful to begin a
questionnaire with basic instructions to be followed in
completing it.
• Introduction: If a questionnaire is arranged into
subsections it is useful to introduce each section with a
short statement concerning its content and purpose.
• Specific Instructions: Some questions may require
special instructions to facilitate proper answering.
• Interviewers instruction: It is important to provide
clear complementary instruction where appropriate to
the interviewer.
6) Reproducing the questionnaire
• Having constructed questionnaire it is necessary to
provide enough copies for the actual data
collection.
• A neatly reproduced instrument will encourage a
higher response rate, thereby providing better data.