Analog Electronics

+V

–
Lecture 5
+

Electronic Devices, 9th edition

Thomas L. Floyd
–V
© 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
All rights reserved.
 Operational Amplifers

Op-amp is an electronic device that amplify the difference of voltage

at its two inputs.

Most op-amps operate from plus +V

and minus supply voltages, which –

may or may not be shown on the

+
schematic symbol.
–V

Very high gain dc coupled amplifiers with differential inputs.

One of the inputs is called the inverting input (-); the other is called the
non-inverting input. Usually there is a single output.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 The Ideal Op-Amp
Ideally, op-amps have characteristics (used in circuit analysis):
o Infinite voltage gain
o Infinite input impedance (does not load the driving sources)
o Zero output impedance (drive any load)
o Infinite bandwidth (flat magnitude response, zero phase shift)
o Zero input offset voltage.

The ideal op-amp has characteristics that

simplify analysis of op-amp circuits. –

Vin Zin = ‘ AvVin Vout

The concept of infinite input impedance is Av = ‘
Zout = 0

particularly a valuable analysis tool for +

several op-amp configurations.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 The Practical Op-Amp

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects.

In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance,
they have other limitations.

o Finite open loop gain.

o Finite input impedence. –
o Non-zero output impedence.
o Input current. Vin Zin AvVin
Zout
Vout

o Input offset voltage.

+
o Temperature effects.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input and Output Impedances

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Signal modes

The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-

mode or in common-mode.
Vin

Vout
+

Differential-mode signals are

applied either as single-ended
(one side on ground) or
double-ended (opposite phases
–
on the inputs). Vin Vout
+

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Signal modes

Common-mode signals are

applied to both sides with the Vin
same phase on both.
–
Vout
+

Vin
Usually, common-mode –
signals are from unwanted Vout
sources, and affect both +
inputs in the same way. The Vin
result is that they are Common-mode
essentially cancelled at the signals
output.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and

reject common-mode signals is called the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).
Aol where Aol is the open-loop
CMRR is defined as CMRR 
Acm differential-gain and Acm is the
common-mode gain.
Acm is zero in ideal op-amp and much less than 1
is practical op-amps.
Aol ranges up to 200,000 (106dB)

CMRR = 100,000 means that desired signal is amplified 100,000 times

more than un wanted noise signal.
 Aol 
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR 20 log  
A
 cm 
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.

 Aol 
CMRR 20 log  
A
 cm 
200, 000
20 log  90 dB
6.3
(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Current Offsets
I1  I 2
I BIAS 
IBIAS: The input bias current is the 2
average of the two dc currents required to
bias the differential amplifier VOUT(ERR)
OUT(ERR)
= AvvIosos.Rinin

I OS  I1  I 2
IOS: The input offset current is the
difference between the two dc bias currents
Vosos = Iosos.Rinin

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Schematic

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Voltage and Current Parameters

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined by the

op-amp and the power supply voltages

VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage

required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts

IBIAS: The input bias current is the I1  I 2

average of the two dc currents required to I BIAS 
2
bias the differential amplifier
IOS: The input offset current is the
I OS  I1  I 2
difference between the two dc bias currents

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedance Parameters
–

ZIN(d)
ZIN(d) : The differential input impedance is
the total resistance between the inputs +

–
ZIN(cm) : The common-mode input
ZIN(cm)
impedance is the resistance between each
input and ground +

Zout: The output impedance is the resistance –

Zout

viewed from the output of the circuit.

+

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Slew Rate
Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of
the output voltage in response to a step input voltage
Vout
Slew Rate 
t Vout (V)
Determine the slew rate for the output
13
response to a step input. 12

0 t
Vout 12 V    12 V 
Slew Rate  
t 4.0 μs –12
–13
4.0 ms
= 6 V/ms
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Extremely High Gain

Open loop gain of an op-amp is in order of 100,000.

Even an extremely small input such as input offset voltage can

saturate the out put.
Vin * Aol= (1mv * 100,1000) = 100V

It limits the use to comparator.

It is not well-controlled parameter.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Negative Feedback One of the most useful concepts in electronics

Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of the

output signal to the input with a phase angle that opposes the
input signal.

Vin +
Vout

Vf –

Internal inversion makes Vf

180° out of phase with Vin.

Negative
feedback
circuit

The advantage of negative feedback is that precise values of amplifier

gain can be set. In addition, bandwidth and input and output impedances
can be controlled.
The gain with external feedback is called closed loop gain, Acl

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Noninverting Amplifier

A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the

signal is given on the noninverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.
The difference of input voltage, Vin and the feedback voltage Vf is the
differential input to op-amp .
Difference is amplified with Aol +
Vout
Vin –
Rf
Vf
The closed-loop gain of the Feedback
circuit
noninverting amplifier is Ri

Rf
Acl (NI) 1 
Ri
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Noninverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the noninverting amplifier shown.

Vin +
Rf Vout
Acl (NI) 1  –
Ri Rf
82 kW
82 k
1 
3.3 k Ri
3.3 kW
= 25.8

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Voltage Follower
A special case of the inverting amplifier is when Rf =0 and
Ri = ∞. This forms a voltage follower or unity gain buffer
with a gain of 1.
This configuration offers very high input impedance and its very low
output impedance.
These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing
high-impedance sources and low-impedance loads.

VVinin ++
It produces an excellent VVout
out

circuit for isolating one –– Rf

82 kW
circuit stage from another,
which avoids "loading"
Ri
effects. 3.3 kW

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the

noninverting input is grounded and the signal is applied through a
resistor to the inverting input.
Concepts of infinite open loop gain and infinite input resistance
extends to ’virtual ground’ at inverting input.
Current through Ri and through
Rf
Rf is equal as no current to the
Iin
inverting input.
If
Ri
The closed-loop gain of the –
I1=0
inverting amplifier is Vout
Vin
Rf +
Acl (I) 
Ri

0 V (virtual ground)
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Inverting Amplifier

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Rf

Rf 82 kW
Acl (I) 
Ri Ri
–
82 k 3.3 kW
 Vout
3.3 k Vin +

= -24.8

The minus sign indicates phase inversion.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances

Noninverting amplifier:
Z in (NI) 1  Aol B  Z in

Z out
Z out (NI) 
1  Aol B 

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances

Inverting amplifier:
Z in (I)  Ri
Z out
Z out (I) 
1  Aol B 
Note that the output impedance has the same form for both amplifiers.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Impedances

Noninverting amplifier:
Z in (NI) 1  Aol B  Z in Generally, assumed to be ∞
Z out
Z out (NI)  Generally, assumed to be 0
1  Aol B 
Inverting amplifier:
Z in (I)  Ri Generally, assumed to be Ri
Z out
Z out (I)  Generally, assumed to be 0
1  Aol B 
Note that the output impedance has the same form for both amplifiers.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bias Current and Offset voltage with compensation techniques

 Transistors within op-amp need bias current.

 Practical op-amp has small input bias currents.
 Small imbalances in transistors produce a small offset
voltage between the inputs.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bias Current and Offset voltage with compensation techniques

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bias Current Compensation

To compensate for input offset current, a resistor equal to

Ri||Rf is added to one of the inputs.

Rf Rf

Ri
– –
Vout Vout
Ri + Vin +

Rc = Ri || Rf Rc = Ri || Rf

Vin
Noninverting Inverting
amplifier amplifier

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Input Offset Voltage Compensation

Most ICs provide a mean of compensation.

An external potentiometer to the offset null pins of IC package

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bandwidth Limitations
Many op-amps have a roll off rate determined by a single
low-pass RC circuit, giving a constant -20 dB/decade down
to unity gain.
Aol (dB)
The blue line 106
Midrange

100
represents the open-
loop frequency 75
characteristic (Bode –20 dB/decade roll-off

plot) for the op-amp. 50

25
Unity-gain frequency (fT)
Critical frequency

0 f (Hz)
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Bandwidth Limitations
For op-amps with a -20 dB/decade open-loop gain, the closed-loop
critical frequency is given by fc(cl) = fc(ol)(1 + BAol(mid))
The closed-loop critical Av
Open-loop gain
frequency is higher than Aol(mid )

the open-loop critical

frequency by the factor
(1 + BAol(mid)). This
Closed-loop gain
means that you can Acl(mid )
achieve a higher BW by
accepting less gain. For
a compensated op-amp,
Acl f(cl) = Aol fc(ol). 0 fc(ol) fc (cl )
f

. © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Example

Bandwidth Limitations

The equation, Acl f(cl) = Aol fc(ol) shows that the product of the gain
and bandwidth are constant. The gain-bandwidth product is also
equal to the unity gain frequency. That is fT = Acl fc(cl), where fT is
the unity-gain bandwidth.

Vin +
The fT for a 741C op amp is 1 MHz.
741C Vout
What is the BWcl for the amplifier? – Rf
82 kW
Rf82 k
Acl (NI) 1  1 25.8
Ri 3.3 k Ri
3.3 kW
f 1 MHz
BWcl  T   38.8 kHz
Acl 25.8
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms
Operational A type of amplifier that has very high voltage
amplifier gain, very high input impedance, very low
output impedance and good rejection of
common-mode signals.

Differential A mode of op-amp operation in which two

mode opposite-polarity signals voltages are applied
to the two inputs (double-ended) or in which a
signal is applied to one input and ground to the
other input (single-ended).

Common mode A condition characterized by the presence of

the same signal on both inputs

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms
Open-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp without external
voltage gain feedback.

Negative The process of returning a portion of the output

feedback signal to the input of an amplifier such that it is
out of phase with the input.

Closed-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp with external

voltage gain feedback.

Gain- A constant parameter which is always equal to

bandwidth the frequency at which the op-amp’s open-loop
product gain is unity (1).

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.