Unit II

Ancient India
Nature of State and Notion of Kingship

• Sources- Brahmanic literature- Rigveda,

Atharvaveda gives more information
• Yajurveda and Brahamanas information
about ceremonies and sacrifices
• Origin of Kingship- Aitreya Brahaman
mentions fight between Devtas and
Asuras, Indra was chosen as king.
• According to K.P.Jayaswal- King was elected
by people who assembled in Samiti.
• The first king was elected on certain
conditions or on the basis of contract.
• Later, Kingship in later Vedic times became
Hereditary.
• Coronation Ceremonies- 1) Rajasuya-
offerings to 11 ratnins, 2) Vajapeya 3)
Agnistoma 4) Ashwamedha
• In earlier times committees like Sabha and

• Samiti imposed check on King later after

Monarchy, King became absolute sovereign.
• Divine Form of Kingship- During the coronation
ceremonies Gods enter the body of King. Vajapeya
and Ashwamedha ceremonies enabled the king
the king to have an equal status with gods.
• King upholder of Dharma, protector of people and
was given a share as his wages.
 Checks on Powers of Kings
• 1) Vedic period, Samiti kept a check
on King
• 2)Ratnins used to be a check
• 3) During coronation, oath was
taken by king.
• 4)Decentralisation of empire
• 5) People migrated to another
country.
 Nature of State
• Sabha- Selective body of important officials, King
and his council of ministers
• Samiti- Central assembly, consisted of everyone
• Vidhatha- general assembly
• Janapada- Assembly of realm
• Paura- assembly of capital- communal association
who did municipal work and other important works.
• Paura and Janapada together decided the next
Yuvraja.
 Republics in Ancient India
• Arthashastra by Kautilya mentioned several
republics like Lichchhavikas, Mallaks,
Madrakas, Kukaras etc. also mentioned by
Greek historians.
• Buddha was born among republican people,
Sakyas.
• Terms used for republics are- Gana and
Sangha.
• A single chief was chosen- how and for what
period chosen, we do not know- was chosen
as office holder, presiding over the sessions
and if no sessions were sitting, over the state.
• Story of Ajatshatru and his minister to defeat
Vaishali , a republic.
 Vedic Age
Rig Vedic Later Vedic
polity, 1500- Polity, 1000
• 1000 BCE BCE-600
BCE
Rig Vedic/ Early Vedic period Economy
• “Vid” means to know, and Rig Veda primarily
contains hymns for God.
• Society was Pastoral, egalitarian and
nomadic.
• “Gau” – Gopa, Gopika, Duhitra, Godhuli,
Gotra
• Assembly- Sabha (exclusive), Samiti (larger),
Vidhatha) both men and women who use to
distribute spoils of war.
• King- elected by tribes, his work was to protect
the tribe, declare war, take care of spoils of war .
• Education of women (Upanayana ceremony),
marriageable age was high
• Bali- offering, tribute (a type of tax) voluntary
offerings
• Religion- simple rituals and ceremonies for peace
and protection, ward of diseases.
• No concept of private property, communally
owned.
• Introduction of Iron

• Large scale Agriculture

• Extensive surplus

• Trade Origin of State System

 Later Vedic period
 1000 BCE- 600 BCE
• Origin of Land as property
• Territorial kingdoms, 16 Mahajanapadas- Kuru,
Panchala, Avanti, Gandhara, Magadha (most
powerful kingdom)
• Introduction of monarchy (Kingship) at a larger scale,
Kingship became divine.
• Hereditary Successors- no more election or selection
process
• Society got divided into four distinct classes-
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
• Religion- Complicated rituals and
ceremonies, Ashwamedha, Rajasuya etc.
• Political assemblies- Monarchy, King
became dictator, Sabha remained,
Vidhatha ceased to exist.
• Marriagable age of women was reduced.
• Upanayana ceremony was replaced by
marriage.
• Concept of private property was
introduced.
 Mauryan Administration
• Sources- Inscriptions of Ashoka, Arthashastra
by Kautilya, Indica of Megasthanese in Greek
accounts
• Form of Government- Monarchy, propagated
by Kautilya
 Saptanga Theory of Kautilya (State)

• Forts King(Swami)
Minister (Mantri)

(kosh)Wealth

(people) Jana (Bala)Army

Allies (Mitra)
• King- Source of power and Dharma, head of
government.
• Mantri- (parishad) council advised the King
• Janapada and Paura- Assemblies of country
and towns
• Provinical Government- under Kumara
Amatyas, princes who worked as viceroys.
• District administration- Pradeshika- both
police and revenue functions, overall in-
charge of district- supervised collection of
revenue
• Rajukas- work restricted to rural areas, as
judicial officers as well as revenue collectors,
responsible for surveying of land.
• Yukta- Largely accounting work, used to
submit report to council of ministers.
• Village administration- head of village
administration was Gramika, not appointed
by king, but elected among the villagers,
solved the petty disputes
• Municipal Administration of towns-
Megathenese mentioned the administration
of cities under municipal government-
• Pataliputra was controlled by Municipal
commission of 30 members divided into 6
boards with five members each-
• A) industrial arts, b) foreign registration, c)
registration of births and deaths, d) trade and
commerce, e) supervision of manufacturers,
f) collection of taxes on value of goods sold.
• Central administration
• A) Samaharta- supervised the collection of
revenue (collector-general)
• B) Sannidhata- treasurer, custodian of revenue
collected in cash and kind.
• C) Pativedikas- espionage system
• D) Military administration- infantry, cavalry, and
horses
• E) Judicial administration- Dharmasthiya- civil
courts, Kankatshodhana- criminal courts
• F) Public health and sanitation- control of
prostitutes, gambling, liquor etc.
 Gupta Polity
• Period from 3rd- 6th century CE
• Sources- Puranas, Dharmashastras, Kalidasa
composition, land grants inscriptions
• Political unity of country after the brief span
of several foreign kingdoms which emerged.
• Thus, high sounding titles like-
Maharajadhiraja, Rajadhiraja, Paramadvaita
Parameshwara
 Two important administrative
features
• Guild system-gana, sangha, puga
• Feudalism-Feudatories were called Nripa,
samanta – attend the court, pay tributes,
matrimonial alliances, regional rulers
• Central administrative ministers
• Council of ministers- Mantriparishad
• Mantrimukhya- Prime minister
• Military head- Mahabaliadhikrata

• Head of Judiciary- Mahadandanayaka

• Head of External/ foreign ministry- Sandhivigrahika
• Ranabhandaraka- in charge of war finances
• Head of cavalry- Aswapati
 Taxes of two kinds- Bhaga (tax paid by private
landowners) Bhagabhoga ( tax paid on crown lands)-

The whole empire was divided into Bhuktis- provinces

under officer Uparika
• Vishayas- were districts under Vishayapati

• Vithis- in cities, under committees consisting

of members representing landed and military
interests. This committee supervised law and
order and settled local disputes.

• Grama- villages under Gramika- to guard the

boundaries of villages. Hereditary post.
 b) Kinship, Caste and Class
• Varna- colour
• Origin- Western View and Brahmanic view
• Western view- origin on basis of colour, fair skinned
Aryans with darked skinned dasyus.
• Brahamanic view- Purushsukta hymn, of Rig Veda, earlier
based on birth, Gita- on basis of karma
• Concept of Varnasharma Dharma- There is Dharma
appropriate to each class and to each stage in the life of
the individual.
• 4 Asramas/ stages- Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sanyasin.
• Ashramas or stages of Life- comes from word
Shrama or labour.

• Brahmancharin- or student life. After the

Upanayana ceremony, a child becomes a student,
a brahmacharin, or dvija (twice born).
• Grihastha- married life, protector of family,
children
• Vanaprastha- hermit, meditation and serve the
others
• Sanyasin- homeless wanderer
• The fact that the four Varnas were born from
different parts of the same Purusha indicates
the interdependence of the Varnas.
• The arrangement of Varnas is for the
integration of the society and not for its
division.
• Varna were class, NOT castes. Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishyas, shudras
• Varna Samskara- Intermixing of Varnas led to
emergence of Castes/ Jatis.
• Varna- 4 in number, Jatis- numerous.
• MANU mentioned 4 Varnas and Fifty Jatis.
• Intermixing happened primarily for two
reasons- 1) marriage 2) assimilation of tribal
people.
• Marriage- Anuloma (marrying into higher
class) and Pratiloma (marrying into lower
class) form of marriage.
 Forms of Marriage
• 1) Brahma- After giving proper dowry, marriage of
girl of same class by ceremony.
• 2) Daiva- gift of daughter to sacrificial priest as fee.
• 3) Arsa- groom paid cow and bull as bride price.
• 4) Prajapatya- no dowry or bride price
• 5) Asura- marriage by purchase
• 6) Gandharva- voluntary union of maiden and lover
• 7) Rakshasa- marriage by capture
• 8) Paisacha- rape, seducing a girl while she is asleep,
intoxicated or deranged.
• These intermixing of Varnas led to
emergence of Jatis. Chandala
• According to Manu, many castes or Jatis were
produced by a series of crosses first between
members of the 4 Varnas and then between
the descendents of these initial unions.
• Many castes were also formed by
degradation from the original varnas because
of non-observance of sacred rites. These are
called Vratyas.
 Gotra and Pravara
• These systems of Gotra and Pravara, which came into
prominence in Vedic times and the Brahamins attached
great significance to these.
• The original meaning of Gotra is “cow pen or
enclosure”. It means a clan. It was a patrilineal,
exogamous, sibship whose members traced their
descent to a common ancestor” was primarily a
Brahamanic institution recording Kin and social
relations.
• Brahmins believed they have descended from one or
other Rishi or sage after whom the Gotras were
named.
• These include Kashayapa, vashistha, Bhrigu, Gautama,
Bharadvaja, Atri and Vishwamitra. The gotra system was
essentially a Brahamainc institution which later was
extended to other Dvija or twice born classes. It extended
the status of these groups
• It was a chief in marriage and property since members of the
same gotra were not allowed to marry within the gotra, but
in the absence of an heir they can claim rights in property.
• A Pravara is a list of names of rishis believed to be the
remote founders of the family, had a similar function. In daily
worship, Brahmins not only mention the name of the founder
of their Gotra, but also the names of other sages who were
believed to be remote ancestors of their family. Marriage not
allowed if person of another Gotra having one Pravara name
in common.
• Sin is equal to incest.
 Concept of Family
• Father was the head of the family, grihapati or
dampati.
• Shraddha- the rite commemorating the ancestors,
bound the groups together. All the relatives of the
deceased (sapinda) joined on this occasion.
• Dominance- Story of Bhisma, Rama, Parashurama,
Rishi Kandu
• Law of Partition- no reference of will, generally
divided equally, sometimes bigger share to eldest
son.
 Status Of Women
 Comparison of stats of women in Rig Veda and Later Vedic period.
 Around 500 BCE, Upanayana came to be discouraged for girls and
marriage was substitute for it.
 Lowering of the marriageable age of women from 16-17 to 8-9
and the practice of Sati was consequence of deterioration on their
status.
 Bhisma telling Yudhisthira “Female is naturally a tempress and a
lurer; moreover she is not endowed with strength of will enough
to resist temptation, therefore, she always stands in need of
protection by men.” but a dedicated housewife need to be
respected.
 Tara, Sita, Draupadi, Ahalya and Mandodri are the five ideal and
revered women.
• Even the liberal Buddhism had the conservative
attitude towards women. Buddha conservation with
his aunt and with his disciple Ananda.
• Varahamihira, who lived in the court of Guptas was
the only one who talked about superior virtues of
women.
• Education- Women philosophers- Gargi and
Maitreyi, possessed highest spiritual knowledge.
• Two classes of women- Brahmavadini (lifelong
students of sacred texts), Sadyodvaha ( those that
prosecuted their studies till their marriage).
Teachers known as Upadhyayis.
• Girls trained in fine arts, music, dance and painting.
• Ganikas or the courtesans and nautch girls
had high status in the society. Later, attached
to temples ( Devadasis) and status
deteriorated.
• Marriagable age-1) Vedic times- Post puberty
 2) Girls should be younger than a boy. 3)
Yajnavalkya- favoured marriage befor puberty
and ideal marriage was one in which the bride
was one-third the age of groom- thus, a man
of twenty- four should marry a girl of eight.
 Monogamy was general rule but many
examples of Polygamy in texts.
 Property
• Hindu jurists never made a sincere effort to
secure women an absolute equality with
their husbands.
• Concept of Sridhan/ Stridhana- consisted of
the bride-price, gifts given by parents,
relatives and non-relatives and gifts given by
the husband after marriage.
• If partition had taken place while the
husband is alive, a wife is also given a share.
 Divorce
• Manusmriti- A barren wife should be
abandoned in the tenth year, one who bears
daughters (only) in twelfth, one whose
children (all) die in the fifteenth, but she is
quarrelsome without delay”.
• Manu allows women to divorce husbands “ if
he is impotent, insane, an ascetic or suffering
from incurable and contagious disease”.
 Widows

• Custom of Sati but not

popular
• Concept of Niyoga or
Levirate.