Energetics

M s . Peace
 Lesson 1

5.1 Measuring Enthalpy Changes

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We Are Here

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Chemical Potential Energy, Heat, and
Entropy
▶ Chemical potential energy is stored in the chemical
bonds of reactants and products

▶ The temperature of the reacting mixture is a function

of the kinetic energy of the atoms, ions, and
molecules present.

▶ Heat, q, is a form of energy that flows from something

at a higher temperature to something at a lower
temperature

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Heat and Temperature
▶ Heat is referred to as thermal energy, and has the
ability to do work
▶ When heat is transferred to an object, the result is an
increase in the average kinetic energy of its
particles, and therefore an increase in its
temperature or a change in phase
▶ Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of
particles
▶ Internal energy is the name given to the total amount
of energy in a substance. Total energy is conserved in
a chemical reaction

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Chemical Energy
▶ System: reactants,
products, and solvents

▶ Surroundings: the
apparatus that contains
the reaction,
thermometers, any
other measuring
devices, the laboratory,
everything external to
the reacting substance
Systems
▶ Open system: the transfer and energy is possible
across its boundary
▶ Closed system: allows no transfer of matter, though
energy may be transferred across the boundary
▶ Isolated system: matter can neither enter nor exit but
can only move around inside

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Specific heat capacity, C
▶ The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount
of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram
by one Kelvin.
▶ q=mcΔT
▶ Specific heat capacity is different for different
substances:
Specific Heat Capacity
Substance J K-1 g-1

Water 4.18
Ethanol 2.44
Air 1.00
Iron 0.450
Copper 0.385

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Calorimetry
▶ Calorimetry is used to measure the amount
of heat released/absorbed in a reaction.

▶ The reaction is used to heat some water, and

the temperature change measured

▶ If we know the mass of water used, the

specific heat capacity of the water and the
temperature change, we can calculate the
heat change.

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Chemical Energy
▶ When a chemical reaction takes place, the atoms of the
reactants are rearranged to create new products

▶ Chemical bonds in the reactants are broken and new chemical

bonds are made to form the products

▶ Energy is required to break the chemical bonds-bond breaking is

endothermic

▶ This energy is called the bond dissociation energy

▶ Energy is released when new chemical bonds are made-bond

making is exothermic
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Chemical Energy
Exothermic vs endothermic

▶ Exothermic reactions release energy

▶ Usually they get hotter (without an external energy supply)
▶ However they can give out other forms of energy such as light or
electricity instead
▶ Generally they are self-sustaining, stopping only when the reactants run
out

▶ Endothermic reactions absorb energy

▶ Usually they get cooler, absorbing heat from the surroundings
▶ However they can absorb other forms of energy such as light or
electricity instead
▶ Generally they require an external energy source to keep them going
and will stop either when the energy supply is halted or they run out
of reactants

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Enthalpy and Thermochemistry
▶ Enthalpy is an example of a state function

▶ For a state function any change in value is

independent of the pathway between the initial
and final measurements

▶ Ex: taking the temperature of the water in a swimming

pool early in the morning (initial value) and then
again in the afternoon (final value), does not tell the
whole story of any temperature fluctuations that may
have occurred throughout the day

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Enthalpy, H (kJ/mol)
▶ This is a measure of the energy locked
up inside chemicals

▶ We can only measure changes

in enthalpy, ∆H, not enthalpy
itself

▶ Substances with lower enthalpy are

more stable than those with higher
enthalpy

▶ Enthalpy level diagrams show the

changes in enthalpy over the course of
a reaction.
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Enthalpy and Thermochemistry
▶ Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes that occur during
chemical reactions

▶ At constant pressure, the change in enthalpy ΔH is defined as

the heat transferred by a closed system during a chemical
reaction.

▶ ΔH values are usually expressed under standard conditions,

given by ΔH°,including standard states

▶ Standard state refers to the normal, most pure stable state of a

substance measured at 100 kPa. Temperature is not a part of the
definition of standard state, but 298 K is commonly given as the
temperature of interest.
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Enthalpy, ∆H
▶ ΔH values are usually expressed under standard conditions,
given by ΔH°,including standard states

▶ Standard state refers to the normal, most pure stable state

of a substance measured at 100 kPa. Temperature is not a
part of the definition of standard state, but 298 K is
commonly given as the temperature of interest.

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Enthalpy Changes in a Solution
▶ Standard enthalpy change of formation (∆H°f ) is the
enthalpy change upon the formation of one mole of a
substance from its constituent elements in their
standard state. (Section 12 of Data Booklet)
▶ C(s) + 2H 2 (g) → CH 4 (g) ∆Hf, = -74.9 kJ mol-1

▶ Some cases, such as the formation of phenol, result

in
½ mol of diatomic atoms appearing on the
reactant side.
▶ 6C(s) + 3H<(g) + ½ O 2 (g) →C 6 H 5 OH(s)
∆Hf, = -165.0 kJ mol-1
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Enthalpy Changes in a Solution
▶ Standard enthalpy change of combustion (∆H°c ) is
the heat evolved upon the complete combustion of 1
mol of substance (Section 13 of Data Booklet)
▶ C 6 H 10 (g) + 13/2 O 2 (g) → 4CO 2 (g) + 5H 2 O
∆H=25.7kJ/mol

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Utilization
▶ To determine their energy content, foods were
traditionally placed in a calorimeter surrounded with
water and completely burnt, causing the water to rise
in temperature

▶ The temperature change was then used to calculate

the energy content or “calorific value” of the food

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 Lesson 2

5.2 Hess’s Law

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We Are Here

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Hess’s Law
▶ The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out
in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the
enthalpy changes for the individual steps.

▶ Determination of the enthalpy change of a

reaction that is the sum of multiple reactions with
known enthalpy changes

▶ Enthalpy of formation data can be found in the data

booklet in section 12.

▶ ΔH reaction =Σ(ΔHf products) - Σ(ΔHf reactants)

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Hess’s Law
▶ A chemical equation usually shows the net reaction-it
is a summary of different reactions, which when added
together result in an overall reaction.

▶ Hess’s law is an application of the conservation of

energy law
▶ Regardless of the route by which a chemical reaction
proceeds, the enthalpy change will always be the same
providing the initial and final states of the system are
the same.

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Hess’s Law
 Hess’ Law
▶ The enthalpy change of a reaction is independent of the pathway
of that reaction
▶ i.e. All that matters is the start and finish points

∆H1 ∆H1
A+B C +D A+B C +D

∆H 2 ∆H 3 ∆H 2
∆H 3
∆H 4 E +F E+F G+
H
∆H1 = ∆H 2 + ∆H 3 ∆H1 = ∆H 2 - ∆H 3 + ∆H 4

▶ Note: add when going ‘with’ an arrow, subtract when going

against an arrow.

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Hess’s Cycle
Why is this useful

▶ It is not always possible to directly measure the

enthalpy change we want.
▶ It may be an endothermic reaction that needs a constant
heat supply
▶ It may be that the reaction doesn’t ‘stop’ where you need it
to
▶ It may be that the reaction is simply too slow

▶ Hess cycles allow us to measure enthalpy

changes indirectly

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Example 1:
C(s) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) ∆H ο = -394 kJ mol–1,
Mn(s) + O 2 (g) → MnO2 (s) ∆H ο = -520 kJ mol–1

Determine ∆H, in kJ, for: MnO2 (s) + C(s) → Mn(s) +

CO 2 (g)

C(s) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) ∆H ο = -394 kJ mol–1

+
MnO2(s)→Mn(s) + O 2 (g) ∆H ο = 520 kJ mol–1

520 kJ mol–1+ (-394kJ mol–1) = 126 kJ mol–1

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Example 1
Using the equations below:
C(s) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) ∆H ο = -394 kJ mol–1, Mn(s) + O 2 (g) → MnO2 (s) ∆H ο = -520 kJ mol–1

Determine ∆H, in kJ, for: MnO2 (s) + C(s) → Mn(s) + CO 2 (g)

Tip: We need to look at

∆H r this a bit like a
MnO2(s) + C(s) Mn(s) + CO 2 (g)
chemical jigsaw
puzzle.
∆H1 = -520 ∆H 2 = -394
Drawing coloured boxes
around the equations for
Mn(s) + O 2 (g) + C(s)
which you have ∆H
∆H r = -∆H 1 + ∆H values, can help you see
how the puzzle will fit
= -(-520)+(-394)
together
= +126 kJ mol-1
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Try This:
Given: 2C(s) + O 2 (g) 2CO(g) ∆H ο = -222 kJ mol–1 ∆H1
C(s) + O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) ∆H ο = - ∆H
2
394 kJ mol –1

Calculate the enthalpy2CO(g) + O 2for the reaction

change 2CO 2 (g)

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 The Answer!
2CO(g) 2C(g)+ O 2 (g) ∆H ο = +222 kJ mol–1
+ 2C(s) + 2O2 (g) 2CO 2 (g) ∆H ο = 2(-394)kJ mol–1

2CO(g) + O 2 2CO 2 (g)

222 kJ mol–1 + (-784 kJ mol–1) = -566kJ mol–1

∆H ο
2CO(g)+ O 2(g) 2CO 2(g)
Direct Route

-222kJ mol–1
2(-394)kJ mol–1
Remember the reactants 2C(s)+ O 2 (g) + O 2 (g)
are products are “flopped”
so change your sign

∆Hο = 222 kJ mol–1 + (-784 kJ mol–1) = -566kJ mol–1

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International Mindedness
▶ Recycling of materials is often an effective means of
reducing the environmental impact of production, but
varies in its efficiency in energy terms in different
countries.

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Theory of Knowledge
▶ Hess’ Law is an example of the application of the
Conservation of Energy. What are the challenges and
limitations of applying general principles to specific
instances?

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Utilization
▶ Hess’s Law has significance in the study of nutrition,
drugs, and Gibbs free energy where direct
synthesis from constituent elements is not
possible.

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 Lesson 3

5.3 Bond Enthalpies

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We Are Here

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Bond Enthalpy
▶ Bond enthalpy is defined in terms of breaking bonds.

▶ Bond-forming releases energy and bond-breaking

requires energy

▶ Average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break

one mole of a bond in a gaseous covalent molecule
under standard conditions

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Bond Enthalpy
▶ Bond enthalpy is often referred to as bond dissociation
enthalpy and selected values are provided in section 11
of the Data Booklet.

▶ These are average values and are only an

approximation.

▶ They are derived from experimental data involving the

breaking of the same bond found in a wide variety of
compound.

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Bond Enthalpy
▶ In CH 4 , the bond enthalpy of each C-H bond will vary
as the chemical environment of the individual bonds
changes.
▶ If a CH 4 molecule underwent a series of steps in
which one hydrogen atom was removed at a time,
the bond dissociation enthalpy would be different
each time as the chemical environment changes
upon the removal of successive hydrogen atoms.
▶ Bond enthalpies do not take into account the
intermolecular forces that exist.
▶ These limitations are not considered to be significant
and the values are acceptable to use
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Average Bond Enthalpy
▶ The average energy required to break one mole of a chemical bond to
produce two moles of gaseous atoms at 298K.

▶ Bond enthalpies are always positive

▶ These are average values, they do not take into account:

▶ Variations in strengths of the same bond in different compounds
▶ For example: the strength of a C-H bond will vary slightly depending on whether it is in
methane, ethene, glucose and so on
▶ Energy changes due to state changes (from intermolecular forces)
▶ Energy changes due to dissolution in water

▶ This means enthalpy changes calculated from bond enthalpies will generally
be less accurate than those calculated by other means

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Bond Enthalpies
▶ Determine the enthalpy change for the following reaction

CH 4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(g)

∆H= BONDS BROKEN - BONDS MADE

= (4 x C-H + 2 x O=O) - (2 x C=O + 4
x O-H)
= (4 x 413 + 2 x 498) - (2 x 746 + 4 x 464)
= 2648 – 3348
= - 7 0 0 kJ mol-1

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 Potential Energy Diagram

H H

▶ ∆H is negative (H goes ▶ ∆H is positive (H goes up)

down) ▶ Activation energy large
▶ Activation energy small ▶ Products less stable
▶
▶ Products morebonds,
Break weaker stablemake stronger bonds ▶ Break stronger bonds, make weaker bonds
▶ Chemical energy turned into heat ▶ Heat energy turned into chemical energy
energy
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Enthalpy Level Diagrams
▶ Used for IB level courses

▶ Do not provide information about activation

energy and so on.

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Bond Length
▶ The bond length reflects the strength of the covalent
bond
▶ A longer bond length corresponds to a lower value of
bond enthalpy

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KNOW THE D I F F E R E N C E
▶To calculate bond enthalpy:
ΔH reaction =Σ(BE bonds broken) - Σ(BE bonds formed)

▶ To calculate the enthalpy of formation:

ΔH reaction =Σ(ΔHf products) - Σ(ΔHf reactants)

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Comparing Enthalpy Values
▶ The reason for differences is that when calculating the
enthalpy change using bond enthalpy values, it is
assumed that the reaction takes place in the gaseous
state, with no intermolecular forces involved.

▶ Experimentally derived enthalpy values involved

standard states which could be liquid, etc.

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Ozone
▶ The bond dissociation enthalpy of an
oxygen molecule, O2, is 498 kJ mol-1

▶ The energy required to break an oxygen-oxygen bond

within an ozone molecule is 364 kJ mol-1

▶ The consequence of this is that an ozone molecule is

decomposed by UV rays more readily than an oxygen
molecule

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Ozone
▶ Energy profile shows that the oxygen molecule and
oxygen atom have a greater combined energy than
the reactant ozone molecule
▶ The products of this reaction are less stable and exist
at a higher energy

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 Lesson 4

15.1 Energy Cycles

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We Are Here

Main
Haber Cycle
▶ Born-Haber Cycles are energy cycles for the formation
of certain ionic compounds

▶ A Born-Haber cycle can be used to calculate

quantities that are difficult to measure directly such as
lattice energies

▶ The formation of an ionic compound as a sequence

of steps whose energies can be determined.

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Lattice Enthalpy, ΔH°lat
▶ Lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change that occurs from the
conversion of an ionic compound into its gaseous ions
▶ This is an endothermic process, requiring energy to be put in.
MX(s) →M+(g) + X - (g)

▶ Experimental values at 298K can be found in section 18

of the Data Booklet

Lattice Enthalpy
Compound kJ mol-1
LiF 1049
LiBr 820
KF 829
CaF2 2651

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Enthalpy of Atomization, ΔH°at
▶ Enthalpy of atomization is the enthalpy change that
occurs when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed from
the element in the standard state under standard
conditions
▶ This is an endothermic process, requiring energy to
be put in.
M(s) →M(g)
½ X2 (g) → X(g)

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Ionization Energy, ΔH°IE
▶ Ionization energy is the standard enthalpy change that
occurs on the removal of 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of
atoms or positively charged ions in the gaseous phase
▶ For metals ions with multiple valence electrons the first,
second, and sometimes third ionization energies are
defined
▶ This is an endothermic process, requiring energy to
be put in.
IE1: M(g) → M+(g) + e -
IE2: M+(g) → M2+(g) + e -

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Electron Affinity, ΔH°EA
▶ Electron affinity is the enthalpy change that occurs when
an electron is added to an isolated atom in the gaseous
state
▶ This is an exothermic process, releasing energy.
▶ Can be positive, but this rarely occurs.
X(g) + e - → X - (g)

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Construction Born-Haber Cycles
▶ The lattice energy, the enthalpy of atomization, the
ionization energy, and the electron affinity are
combined to construct the Born-Haber cycle and
find the enthalpy of formation of an ionic compound

▶ The standard Born-Haber cycle focuses on the

processes involved and the relationships between the
individual steps rather than the magnitude of each
energy change

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Born-Haber Cycles
▶ Lattice enthalpies are
difficult to measure
directly, so we use
Born-Haber cycles
▶ These are just a
specialised type of Hess
cycle

▶ To calculate ΔHlat : Δ
▶ Start at the bottom and
work round clockwise,
adding and subtracting
according to the arrows.

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Born-Haber Cycle for Sodium Chloride
kJ mol-1
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl Na(s) + ½Cl2 (g) ——>NaCl(s) – 411

Enthalpy of sublimation of sodium Na(s) ——> Na(g) + 108

Enthalpy of atomisation of chlorine ½Cl2 (g) ——> Cl(g) + 121

1st Ionisation Energy of sodium Na(g) ——> Na+(g) + e¯ + 5 0 0

Electron Affinity of chlorine Cl(g) + e¯ ——> Cl¯(g) – 364

Lattice Enthalpy of NaCl Na+(g) + Cl¯(g) ——> NaCl(s)

?

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Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl
Na(s) + ½Cl2 (g) ——>
NaCl(s)

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Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl
Na(s) + ½Cl2 (g) ——>
NaCl(s)
Enthalpy of sublimation of
sodium Na(s) ——> Na(g)

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Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl
Na(s) + ½Cl2 (g) ——>
NaCl(s)
Enthalpy of sublimation
of sodium
Na(s) ——> Na(g)
Enthalpy of atomization of
chlorine
½Cl 2 (g) ——> Cl(g)
Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl
Na(s) + ½Cl2 (g) ——>
NaCl(s) Enthalpy of
sublimation of sodium
Na(s) ——> Na(g)
Enthalpy of atomization
of chlorine
½Cl 2 (g) ——> Cl(g)
1st Ionization Energy of
sodium Na(g) ——>
Na+(g) + e¯
Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl
Na(s) + ½Cl 2 (g) ——> NaCl(s)
Enthalpy of sublimation of
sodium Na(s) ——> Na(g)
Enthalpy of atomization of
chlorine
½Cl 2 (g) ——> Cl(g)
1st Ionization Energy of sodium
Na(g) ——> Na+
(g) + e¯
Electron Affinity of chlorine
Cl(g) + e¯ ——
> Cl¯(g)
Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Enthalpy of formation of NaCl
Na(s) + ½Cl 2 (g) ——>
NaCl(s) Enthalpy of
sublimation of sodium Na(s) ——>
Na(g)
Enthalpy of atomization of
chlorine
½Cl 2 (g) ——> Cl(g)
1st Ionization Energy of
sodium Na(g) ——> Na+(g)
+ e¯ Electron Affinity
of chlorine Cl(g) + e¯
——> Cl¯(g) Lattice
Enthalpy of NaCl
Na+(g) + Cl¯(g) ——> NaCl(s)
Born-Haber Cycle-MgCl 2
1. Enthalpy of formation of MgCl2
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) ——>
MgCl2(s)
2. Enthalpy of sublimation of Mg
Mg(s) ——> Mg(g)
3. Enthalpy of atomization of Cl
½Cl 2 (g) ——> Cl(g) x2
4. 1st Ionization Energy of
Mg Mg(g) ——> Mg+(g)
+ e¯
5. 2nd Ionization Energy of
Mg Mg+(g) ——> Mg2+(g)
+ e¯
6 Electron Affinity of Cl
Cl(g) + e¯ ——>
Born-Haber Cycle-NaCl
Apply Hess’ Law
=- + + + +
The minus shows you are going in
the opposite direction to the
definition
= - (411) + (108) + (121) + (500) +
(364)
= - 682 kJ mol-1
OR…
Ignore the signs and just use the
values;
If you go up you add, if you come down
you subtract the value
Lattice Enthalpy Values

Smaller ions will have a greater attraction for each other

because of their higher charge density. They will have larger
Lattice Enthalpies and larger melting points because of the
extra energy which must be put in to separate the oppositely
charged ions.

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Lattice Enthalpy Values

The sodium ion has the same charge as a potassium ion but
is smaller. It has a higher charge density so will have a more
effective attraction for the chloride ion. More energy will be
released when they come together.

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Lattice Enthalpy Values
Standard Enthalpy Change of Solution,
ΔH°sol

▶ The standard enthalpy change of solution is the

change in enthalpy when 1 mole of a substance
is dissolved in a large excess of a pure solvent
▶ Can have either positive or negative values
NH 4 Cl(s) → NH4+(aq) + Cl - (aq) AH°sol = +14.78 kJ mol-1
LiBr(s) → Li+(aq) + Br-(aq) AH°sol = -48.83 kJ mol-1

▶ It is possible to calculate the enthalpy change of

solution empirically, or by using an energy cycle that
involves the lattice enthalpy of the ionic solid and
the subsequent hydration enthalpy of the gaseous
ions
produced. Main
Enthalpy Change of Hydration, ΔH°hyd
▶ The enthalpy change of hydration for an ion is the
enthalpy change when 1 mole of the gaseous ion
is added to water to form a dilute solution
▶ The term solvaton is used in place of hydration for
solvents other than water
▶ The enthalpy change of hydration always has a negative
value
M+(g) → M+(aq) AH°hyd = - kJ mol-1
X - (g) → X- (aq) AH° = - kJ mol-1
hyd

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Enthalpy Change of Solution
Enthalpy of Hydration
▶ The enthalpy of hydration is a way of quantifying
the amount of energy released during the process
of solvation
▶ Solvation is described as any stabilizing interaction of a
solute and the solvent or a similar interaction of solvent
with groups of an insoluble matter.

▶ The magnitude of the enthalpy of hydration

is influenced by the charge and size of the
ion.
▶ Table 2 0 in the Data Booklet

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Enthalpy of Hydration

▶ As you move down a group in the periodic table

the enthalpy of hydration decreases as the ionic
radius increases.
▶ For cations, an increase in charge on the ion
combined with a decrease in size results in
significantly larger enthalpy of hydration.
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International Mindedness
The importance of being able to obtain measurements of
something which cannot be measured directly is significant
everywhere. Borehole temperatures, snow cover depth, glacier
recession, rates of evaporation and precipitation cycles are
among some indirect indicators of global warming. Why is it
important for countries to collaborate to combat global
problems like global warming

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 Lesson 5

15.2 Entropy and Spontaneity

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We Are Here

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Spontaneity
▶ A spontaneous reaction is one that keeps ▶ Burning wood is a
itself going spontaneous reaction
▶ i.e. It doesn’t require an external energy
input
▶ Some reactions are spontaneous at all
temperatures:
▶ Although if you lower the temperature enough,
the rate might be too low to matter ▶ The thermal
▶ Some reactions only become spontaneous decomposition of copper
above a certain temperature while others carbonate is a
are only spontaneous below a certain non-spontaneous
temperature. reaction
▶ Exothermic reactions are usually
spontaneous, with some exceptions

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Spontaneity
▶ The first and second law of thermodynamics
are fundamental practical applications in
chemistry
▶ The first law, the law of conservation of energy, concerns
energy n the physical world
▶ The second law of thermodynamics focuses on
entropy and the spontaneity of chemical reactions

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Entropy, S
▶ Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available energy among the
particles. The more ways the energy can be distributed the higher
the entropy.
▶ The disorder of a system
▶ Units: J K-1 mol-1 (Joules per Kelvin per mole)

LOW ENTROPY
HIGH ENTROPY

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Entropy of Phases
Entropy of gas>liquid>solid under same conditions.

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Entropy
▶ Spontaneous reactions lead to an increase in the total
entropy within the system and the surroundings

▶ Entropy is a state function, so a change in entropy is

determined by the difference between its final and
initial values

ΔS298(reaction)= ΣS298 (products) -

ΣS298(reactants)

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Entropy
▶ When the overall entropy of the universe remains
unchanged, the system is in equilibrium.
▶ If the overall entropy of the universe is found to be
negative, the reaction is non-spontaneous, or
spontaneous in the opposite direction

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Entropy
▶ An increase in enthalpy within the system will result
in increased movement of the particles, leading to
greater disorder and an increase in the entropy of the
system
▶ The changes in both enthalpy and entropy affect
the spontaneity of a chemical reaction
▶ Exothermic reactions are more likely to be spontaneous,
as this leads to a reduction in enthalpy and greater
stability of the reaction products
▶ An increase in entropy makes reactions more likely
to be
spontaneous, as greater disorder leads to more uniform
distribution of energy within the system

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Entropy
▶ Lower Entropy:
▶ Pure substances
▶ Slow moving
particles
▶ Particles close
together
▶ Fewer particles
▶ Solids
▶ Higher Entropy
▶ Mixtures of
substances
▶ Fast moving
particles
▶ Particles spread out
▶ More particles
▶ Gases

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Factors Affecting Entropy
▶ An increase in the number of moles of
gas
▶ ΔS: positive; Entropy: increases

▶ A decrease in the number of moles of gas

▶ ΔS: negative; Entropy: decreases

▶ An increase in temperature
▶ ΔS: positive; Entropy: increases

▶ An increase in pressure
▶ ΔS: positive; Entropy: increases
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 Calculating Entropy Change, ∆S o
▶ For example:
▶ Calculate the standard entropy change when pentane
(So=261 JK-1mol-1) is ‘cracked’ to form propane (S o =270
JK-1mol-1) and ethene (S o =220 JK-1mol-1) :

▶ C5H12(l) → C 2 H 4 (g) + C 3 H 8 (g)

▶ ∆S o = (270 + 220) – 261 = 229 J K-1 mol-1
▶ The positive nature of this result should be expected, as
you have increased the number of molecules, and
changed state from liquid to gas

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Calculate ∆S o for:
For each one, explain why ∆S o h a s the sign it does
∆S o are written underneath the formula if not in data booklet.

▶ C 6 H14 (l) → C 2 H 4 (g) + C 4 H 1 0 (g)

▶ CH 4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(l)

205 214 189

▶ 6CO 2 (g) + 6H 2 O(l) → C 6 H 12 O 6 (s) +

6O 2 (g) 214 189 209 205

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Gibbs Free Energy, G
▶ GIbbs free energy is a state function

▶ ΔG is a convenient way to take into account both the

direct entropy change resulting from the
transformation of the chemicals, and the indirect
entropy change of the surroundings as a result of the
gain/loss of heat energy

▶ The combination of enthalpy, entropy, and

temperature of a system can be used to determine
Gibbs free energy

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Gibbs Free Energy: Measuring Spontaneity
▶ Spontaneity is measured by Gibbs Free
Energy:
▶ -ve means spontaneous
▶ +ve means non-spontaneous

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

ΔGf o=ΣΔGo (products) - ΣΔGo

(reactants)
f f

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∆ G = ∆H - T∆S
▶ Is the reaction of ethene with hydrogen (to form ethane),
spontaneous at room temperature (298K)?
▶ C 2 H 4 (g) +H2(g) → C 2 H 6 (g)
▶ ∆H o = -137 kJ mol-1
▶ ∆S o = -121 J K-1 mol-1

▶ Calculate Gibbs Free Energy

▶ ∆G = ∆H - T∆S
▶ ∆G = -137 – (298 x Divide by 1000 to convert to kJ
-121)/1000
▶ ∆G = -149 – (-36) = -101 kJ
mol-1
▶ Evaluate the answer
▶ The answer is negative, which means the reaction is spontaneous at
room temperature

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The Effect of Changing the Temperature

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

▶ What happens if we increase the temperature?

▶ Since ∆H and both ∆ S are both negative, ∆ G can be either
positive or negative depending on the temperature
▶ A high temperature will make the ‘T∆S’ term large enough
to counter-balance the ∆H term
▶ At any temperature below a certain point, the reaction will be
spontaneous
◻ This does not mean that the reaction will be fast, just that it will (in
theory) happen

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Summarizing the Effect Of Temperature
Changes

∆G = ∆H - T∆S
Use the equation to help yourself reason these through

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Free Energy and Equilibrium

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Favors Reactants to Products

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Favors Products to Reactants

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