Unit-3

Static characteristics of sensors and actuators

 Definition

 Static characteristics of sensors and actuators define

how these devices respond to a steady-state input (or
signal) over time, where there is no consideration of the
dynamic response (time-dependent behavior). These
characteristics are essential for determining the accuracy,
precision, and performance of sensors and actuators under
constant input conditions.
 Accuracy
• Definition: Accuracy refers to the closeness of the sensor or
actuator's output to the true or actual value of the input.
• Example for Sensors: If a temperature sensor measures the
temperature of 25°C as 24.8°C, the accuracy is the difference
between the true value (25°C) and the measured value
(24.8°C), which is 0.2°C.
• Example for Actuators: In a motor controlling a robotic arm
to reach a position of 90 degrees, if it reaches 89.5 degrees,
the accuracy is how close it gets to the desired position.
 Precision (or Repeatability)
• Definition: Precision refers to the ability of a sensor or actuator to
provide the same output or reach the same state under identical input
conditions, over multiple measurements or operations.
• Example for Sensors: If a sensor gives the readings 24.8°C, 24.9°C,
and 24.85°C for a true temperature of 25°C in repeated measurements, it
has good precision because the values are very close to each other.
• Example for Actuators: If an actuator consistently positions a
mechanism at 89.5 degrees when asked to move to 90 degrees, it shows
high precision.
 Resolution

• Definition: Resolution is the smallest change in the input

signal that a sensor or actuator can detect or respond to.

• Example for Sensors: If a pressure sensor can detect

changes as small as 0.01 bar, this is its resolution.

• Example for Actuators: If a stepper motor moves in

steps of 1.8 degrees, then its resolution is 1.8 degrees per
step.
 Sensitivity
• Definition: Sensitivity refers to the ratio of the change in output
to the change in the input signal. It describes how much the
output changes in response to a unit change in input.
• Example for Sensors: If a strain gauge sensor provides an
output voltage that increases by 0.1V for every 1N increase in
force, its sensitivity is 0.1V/N.
• Example for Actuators: For a hydraulic actuator, if a pressure
change of 1 bar produces a force change of 10 N, its sensitivity is
10 N/bar.
 Linearity
• Definition: Linearity refers to how closely the relationship between
the input and output of a sensor or actuator follows a straight line. It
indicates whether the output changes proportionally with the input.
• Example for Sensors: A perfectly linear temperature sensor will
output a voltage that increases uniformly with temperature. If there
are deviations from the straight line, the sensor exhibits non-linearity.
• Example for Actuators: In a linear actuator, if the displacement is
directly proportional to the input voltage, the actuator is said to be
linear.
 Offset (or Zero Error)
• Definition: Offset refers to the difference between the actual
output of the sensor or actuator when the input is zero and the
expected output (which should ideally be zero).
• Example for Sensors: A pressure sensor that reads 0.2V when
no pressure is applied has an offset of 0.2V.
• Example for Actuators: If an actuator does not reach its zero
position when no input is applied, it has an offset.
 Drift
• Definition: Drift refers to the change in output over time when the input
remains constant. It can be due to environmental factors like temperature
or aging of the device.
• Example for Sensors: If a temperature sensor's output slowly increases
by 0.5°C over time while the actual temperature remains constant, it
exhibits drift.
• Example for Actuators: If an actuator starts moving slightly away from
its set position over time without any change in the input signal, it
experiences drift.
 Hysteresis
• Definition: Hysteresis refers to the difference in output when the
input is increasing versus when it is decreasing, even though the
input values are the same.
• Example for Sensors: If a sensor measures a pressure increase
from 0 to 100 bar and gives different readings when the pressure is
decreased from 100 bar to 0 bar, it exhibits hysteresis.
• Example for Actuators: An actuator moving forward to a position
might stop at a different location than when it moves backward to
the same position, indicating hysteresis.
 Range (Span)
• Definition: Range refers to the minimum and maximum values of
the input signal that a sensor or actuator can accurately detect or
respond to.
• Example for Sensors: A temperature sensor might have a range
of -40°C to +100°C, meaning it can measure temperatures within
this span.
• Example for Actuators: A linear actuator might have a range of
motion between 0 and 100 mm.
 Threshold
• Definition: The threshold is the minimum input signal level
required to produce a measurable output.
• Example for Sensors: If a sensor requires a force of at least 0.1
N to generate any output signal, the threshold is 0.1 N.
• Example for Actuators: An actuator might not move unless it
receives an input signal above a certain threshold voltage, such
as 0.5V.
 Position sensors

 Position sensors are devices that detect the position or displacement of an

object and convert this information into a corresponding signal. They are
widely used in automation, robotics, manufacturing, and many other
applications where precise position measurement is crucial. These sensors can
measure position in either linear or rotary (angular) terms.
 Types of Position Sensors
1. Potentiometers
2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
3. Rotary Encoders
4. Hall Effect Sensors
5. Proximity Sensors
6. Capacitive Position Sensors
7. Inductive Position Sensors
8. Optical Position Sensors
 Potentiometers
 Description:
 A potentiometer is a resistive sensor that converts the angular or
linear displacement of a wiper along a resistive element into a voltage
signal.
 Types:
• Rotary Potentiometers: Measure angular displacement.
• Linear Potentiometers: Measure linear displacement.
 Working Principle:
• As the wiper moves along the resistive track, it changes the resistance,
producing a voltage output proportional to the position of the wiper.
 Applications:
• Volume control knobs, joysticks, industrial controls for measuring shaft
position.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Description:
 LVDT is a type of transformer used to measure linear displacement. It
provides highly accurate and sensitive position measurements.
 Working Principle:
• The sensor consists of a primary coil, two secondary coils, and a
movable core. When the core moves, the induced voltage in the
secondary coils changes, and the difference between the two induced
voltages is proportional to the displacement.
 Advantages:
• High accuracy and repeatability, excellent resolution, and frictionless
operation.
 Applications:
• Used in precision engineering, aerospace, and automation for
measuring displacement, vibration, and position.
 Hall Effect Sensors
 Description:
 Hall effect sensors detect the presence of a magnetic field and convert it
into a voltage signal. They can be used to measure both linear and
angular position based on magnetic field strength.
 Working Principle:
• The Hall effect occurs when a conductor with current flowing through it
experiences a voltage change in the presence of a magnetic field. The
strength and direction of the magnetic field can be correlated to position.
 Advantages:
• Robust, contactless measurement, and can be used in harsh
environments.
 Applications:
• Automotive sensors (e.g., throttle position sensors), motor speed sensing,
and position sensing in robotics.
 Proximity Sensors
 Description:
 Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object and its position without
direct contact. They are commonly used to detect if an object is within a
certain range.
 Types:
• Inductive Proximity Sensors: Detect metallic objects using electromagnetic
fields.
• Capacitive Proximity Sensors: Detect both metallic and non-metallic
objects by sensing changes in capacitance.
• Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors: Use ultrasonic sound waves to detect object
position or distance.
• Optical Proximity Sensors: Use light (IR or laser) to detect objects.
 Applications:
• Automation, object detection in manufacturing lines, robotics, and security
systems.
 Capacitive Displacement Sensor
 Description:
 Capacitive displacement sensors measure the change in capacitance
between two conductive surfaces as they move relative to each other.
 Working Principle:
• As the distance between the two conductive plates changes, the
capacitance varies. The displacement is measured by the change in
capacitance, which is proportional to the distance between the plates.
 Advantages:
• High sensitivity, ability to detect very small displacements, and non-
contact measurement.
 Applications:
• Used in precision equipment, semiconductor manufacturing, and non-
contact displacement measurement.
Force and torque sensors
 Force and torque sensors are crucial components used to measure the force
exerted on an object or the torque applied to a rotating system. They are widely
used in robotics, automation, material testing, manufacturing, automotive, and
aerospace industries.
 Force Sensors
 A force sensor is a device that measures the force applied to an object, typically
by converting the mechanical force into an electrical signal.
 Types of Force Sensors:
1. Strain Gauge-based Force Sensors
2. Piezoelectric Force Sensors
3. Capacitive Force Sensors
4. Hydraulic/Pneumatic Force Sensors
5. Magnetostrictive Force Sensors
6. Optical Force Sensors
 Strain Gauge-Based Force Sensors
• Principle: Strain gauges operate based on changes in electrical
resistance due to deformation when a force is applied.
• Structure: A strain gauge sensor includes a thin, flexible material
bonded to a structure that deforms under load.
• Application: Used in weight measurement, structural analysis, and
force measurement in mechanical testing equipment.
 Piezoelectric Force Sensors
• Principle: These sensors generate a voltage when they experience
mechanical stress. This is due to the piezoelectric effect in materials
like quartz or ceramics.
• Structure: They are typically compact and highly sensitive to
dynamic forces.
• Application: Ideal for measuring dynamic forces, vibrations, and
impact forces in applications like aerospace and vehicle testing.
 Capacitive Force Sensors
• Principle: Changes in capacitance occur when a force is applied,
altering the distance between capacitor plates.
• Structure: Consists of two conductive plates with a dielectric
material in between. The force applied causes a measurable change
in capacitance.
• Application: Common in touch-sensitive devices, robotics, and
medical devices for soft-touch applications.
 Resistive Force Sensors (FSRs)
• Principle: The sensor’s electrical resistance decreases as the force increases.
• Structure: Typically consists of a polymer with conductive properties that
change under pressure.
• Application: Used in applications like pressure-sensitive buttons, robotics,
and grip strength measurement.
 Optical Force Sensors
• Principle: These sensors measure force through changes in light transmission or
reflection due to force.
• Structure: Often uses fiber optics that detect bending or compression.
• Application: Suited for medical applications, especially in minimally invasive
surgeries, and other areas where precise force feedback is required.

• In mechatronics, force sensors play a critical role in automation, robotics, and

control systems, where precise feedback is necessary to ensure proper force
application, safety, and performance of systems. Examples include robotic grippers
that adapt grip strength based on object fragility and automotive systems that rely
on force feedback for adaptive braking.
Pressure sensors
 Pressure sensors are essential components in mechatronic systems, used to
monitor and control fluid or gas pressures in various applications. They convert
physical pressure into an electrical signal, providing vital feedback in systems
requiring precise pressure regulation

 Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors Principle: These sensors measure pressure using a
strain gauge that deforms under pressure, causing a change in electrical
resistance.
 Structure: Typically includes a diaphragm with a bonded strain gauge that
detects changes when pressure is applied.
 Application: Used in hydraulic systems, automotive fuel monitoring, and fluid
power systems to maintain consistent pressure.
 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
• Principle: These sensors generate an electrical charge when subjected to
pressure, utilizing the piezoelectric effect.
• Structure: Often made with piezoelectric materials like quartz, generating a
voltage proportional to pressure.
• Application: Suitable for dynamic measurements, like engine combustion
monitoring and shock wave measurements in automotive testing
 Capacitive Pressure Sensors
 Principle: Pressure changes cause variation in capacitance between two
conductive plates within the sensor.
 Structure: A flexible diaphragm acts as one plate, and pressure changes alter the
distance between plates.
 Application: Common in air pressure monitoring systems, HVAC systems, and low-
pressure applications in industrial automation.
 Optical Pressure Sensors
• Principle: These sensors use light interference or optical fiber
properties to measure pressure.
• Structure: Composed of an optical fiber or membrane that
deforms under pressure, affecting light transmission.
• Application: Used in applications requiring precise
measurement, such as in aerospace, medical devices, and
hazardous environments where electrical components are
unsuitable.
 Applications in Mechatronics
 In mechatronics, pressure sensors are instrumental in applications
such as:
• Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems: To monitor and control
pressure, ensuring smooth operation of actuators and motors.
• Automotive Systems: For applications like tire pressure monitoring,
engine manifold pressure, and fuel injection systems.
• Industrial Robotics: To measure grip force in robotic arms handling
soft or delicate objects, ensuring consistent pressure in contact.
• Medical Devices: In ventilators and infusion pumps, to control and
monitor fluid or air pressure with high precision.
 Proximity sensor

 A proximity sensor is a device that can detect or sense the approach or presence of
nearby objects and for this it does not need physical contact. There are different kinds
of proximity sensors. Some of them are listed
 Inductive: This type of sensor is used to detect nearby metallic objects. The sensor
creates an electromagnetic field around itself or on a sensing surface.
 Capacitive: This type of sensor is used for detection of metallic objects and nonmetallic
objects.
 Photoelectric: This type of sensor is used to detect objects. A light source and receiver
are the main components of such sensors.
 Magnetic: This type of sensor uses an electrical switch that is operated based on the
presence of permanent magnets in a sensing area.
 An inductive proximity sensor mainly consists
of a coil, an electronic oscillator, a detection
circuit, an output circuit, and an energy source
to provide electrical stimulation. This type of
proximity sensor works on the principle of
inductance and generation of eddy currents.
Inductance is defined as the change in current
flowing through a conductor that induces a
voltage in both the conductor and any nearby
conductors. Eddy current is the current induced
in the conductor by a changing magnetic field
in the conductor. Eddy current creates a
magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field
that created it.
  The oscillator is fed electrical
current through a direct current
supply. This oscillator generates a
changing alternating current (AC).
When AC is passed through the
induction coil, it generates a
changing electromagnetic field. This
field creates metal sensing region
called an active surface in front of
Examples are conveyor belts, elevators, the sensor. Fig. 3.30 shows AC and
car washes, metal detectors electromagnetic field generation on
the sensor side, while the metal
object generates a change in
impedance due to eddy currents.
Capacitive Proximity Sensor

 Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect

changes in the capacitance between the
sensing object and the Sensor. As per the
name, capacitive proximity sensors
operate by noting a change in the
capacitance read by the sensor.
 The amount of capacitance varies
depending on the size and distance of the
sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive
Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor
with two parallel plates, where the
capacity of the two plates detected
 The capacitive proximity sensor consist a high-
frequency oscillator along with a sensing surface
formed by two metal electrodes. When an object
comes near the sensing surface, it enters the
electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes
the capacitance of the oscillator.

 As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating

and changes the output state of the sensor when it
reaches certain amplitude. As the object moves
away from the sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude
decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial
state.
 The difference between Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensor:
 Inductive sensors use a magnetic field to detect objects. Capacitive sensors use an
electric field. In order to be sense by an inductive sensor an object must be conductive.
This limits suitable targets to metal objects (for the most part). In order to be sense by a
capacitive sensor the target doesn’t need to be conductive.
 A capacitive sensor will react to an object acting as a dielectric material as well as a
conductive object. This makes metal and non-metal objects suitable targets.